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Radioactive pollution is largely attributable to radioactivity, a natural property of certain elements, such as radium, uranium, thorium, etc. of spontaneously emitting protons (alpha particles), electrons (beta particles), and gamma rays (short-wave electromagnetic waves) through the disintegration of their atomic nuclei (nuclides).

An alpha particle consists of two protons and two neutrons, which is akin to a helium nucleus. Alpha particles travel at a very slow speed, whereas gamma rays propagate at the speed of light. The alpha particles have less penetration power than the beta and gamma rays. In human tissues, alpha particles can penetrate up to a depth of about 0.005 to 0.008 cm. The gamma rays, on the other hand, are the most penetrating and can easily pass through a human body without striking anything in between. The high penetration power of gamma rays is because they have no charge; therefore, they do not interact with anything as the charged alpha particles would do

A sound is a form or energy. Therefore, it has to have an impact on life in one way or the other. Most of the organisms of Kingdom Animalia communicate with each other creating a peculiar sound. Creating sound is inevitable for performing various life activities. Every animal species has the characteristic sound it reflects through its behavior. Whatever all the animals communicate through creating specific sounds is all-natural. Nature, as such is a stupendous repository of a diversity of sounds, all being specific characteristics of life.

Human behavior, however, is highly evolved in terms of creating a variety of sounds. Communication, entertainment, and many behavioral activities are expressed through creating distinctive sounds. There is a difference between natural sounds and the ones human beings create or can create. Humans often generate sounds, not just in a natural manner, but also with various technical aids, that often become unpleasant what we call noise. Creating noise, or noise pollution, seems to be an exclusive characteristic of the human species. Of course, there could be some natural sounds that might occasionally cause havoc to life. Examples are the sounds generated at the time of the volcanic eruption, during an earthquake

Life on Earth is rooted in soil. Soil is not just a substratum anchoring the plants and giving a base for all terrestrial animals. It is the largest terrestrial ecosystem, and one of the most wonderful ecosystems on Earth. It inhabits most microorganisms. Microbial populations flourishing within the soil have greater biomass than all the human beings, elephants, and whales put together. It is due to the microorganisms that the soil constitutes the most active ecosystem on Earth.

The health of the soil is crucial for the health of all the plants growing on it and for all the animals dependent on it for their inhabitation and nourishment. Soil health is also critical for the well-being of numerous microorganisms, detritivores, and several other organisms. Soil is composed of all essential nutrients/ minerals, air, water, and organisms in a proportion that strikes its ecological balance and maintains its structure and functions revealed through its productive potential.

Soil, like all other ecosystems, is itself a dynamic ecosystem. Its composition keeps changing but natural inbuilt mechanisms help strike a balance and recover 

Ours is a Living Planet because ours is a Water Planet. The health of the Living Planet depends on the health of its water resources. Ironically, the health of its water resources is at stake. And so of its life! The waters of the Earth are in the grips of pollution. Much of the water is already polluted and the rest is increasingly becoming polluted. Water pollution, indeed, is one of the worst problems life on Earth is faced with. Water pollution is halting human progress and is phenomenally affecting all walks of human civilization. Water pollution is even putting a question mark on our sustainable future. This chapter presents the causes, magnitude, and consequences of water pollution and also suggests ways and means to prevent and control water pollution and also attempts to manage water resources.

Air or atmosphere constitutes one of the integral components of the environment. Among all the environmental components, the air has the highest fluidity. Therefore, the entry of a foreign substance into the air imparts a quick and severe effect on the health of the organisms. Air in the biosphere has a mixture of various gases in a dynamic proportion which is conducive to maintaining the health and sustenance of all living organisms. An alteration in the composition of the atmosphere beyond a certain limit adversely affects organisms’ health, and might even be of more serious consequences for life.

Air pollution, thus, is defined as the occurrence of undesirable gases (e.g., carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide, etc.) or particles (e.g., suspended particulate matter) in such concentrations that are deleterious to terrestrial life (vegetation, animals, and human beings) and some physical assets, like buildings, statues, and monuments. Air pollution especially affects the health of human beings living in highly modified (anthropogenic) ecosystems, e.g., cities and industrial areas.

We are living in a world that is in a grim state of environmental disruptions. Callous developmental activities resulting in pollution of all environmental components and gradually culminating in global warming, climate change, and species extinction are responsible for triggering the processes of environmental disruption. Pollution of air, water, and soil is rapidly assuming alarming proportions.

The very processes of socioeconomic development are now posing threat to economic progress as well as to human health. Ominous changes in global climate are posing threat to life on Earth. The irony is that the major cause of environmental disruptions is anthropogenic rather than natural. Human’s materialistic progress and environmental pollution in our contemporary world go hand in hand.

Till date, there is no complete agreement on the terms used in cropping system. An attempt was made to standardize the terms and their usage at the symposium on Multiple Cropping held by the American Society of Agronomy, in Knoxville, Tennessee, during August, 1975. Some definitions published in the proceeding (Andrews and Kassam, 1976) which forms the basis for the improvement and additions of definitions made subsequently (Francis, 1989). The terms commonly used in cropping system and their definitions are given in the following paragraphs.

The main objective of cropping system is to utilize the available resources in an efficient manner. There are several indices to evaluate the yield advantage of cropping system and also to compare the efficiency of different cropping system in terms of land use.

Definition: Agro-forestry is a land use system where woody perennials (or trees) are deliberately grown in conjunction with field crops, horticultural crops and pasture, with the objective of meeting various requirements of the farmers from the farm; it also acts as an insurance against the risk of uncertain / abnormal weather condition

System is a set of principles or procedures according to which management is done; it is an organized scheme or method. A system is a group of interrelated or interacting elements (crops or livestock) that act according to a set of rules to form a unified whole.

Crop: Plants grown in association, sown (or planted) and also harvested by human being, are collectively known as crop.
Crop plants have some economic values and there is an interaction or competition among the plants.

In order to provide for the establishment of an effective system for protection of plant varieties, the rights of farmers and plant breeders and to encourage the development of new varieties of plants it has been considered necessary to recognize and protect the rights of the farmers in respect of their contribution made at any time in conserving, improving and making available plant genetic resources for the development of the new plant varieties. Moreover to accelerate agricultural development, it is necessary to protect plants breeders’ rights to stimulate investment for research and development for the development of new plant varieties.

Conservation of released varieties requires a sound scientific and technical basis. There are two main strategies for conserving agricultural biodiversity, namely ex-situ and in-situ conservation, both of which are equally important. In-situ conservation refers to the maintenance of a species in its natural habitat. Exsitu conservation is the conservation of components of biodiversity outside their natural habitats. It is conserved in the form of seeds (seed gene bank), live plants (field gene bank), tissues (tissue gene bank), pollens (pollen gene bank) and DNA materials (DNA bank). 

Agathi is a fast growing tree upto 10m. tall. Branching is drooping. The stem bark is deeply furrowing forming cork like plates. Leaves are compound, pinnae, 20 to 30 cm. long glabresence to pubescent. Leaflet oblong rounded 18 to 24 pairs of leaflets that are green to dark green mostly, bitter free. Inflorescence is a raceme 4 to 7 cm long and bearing 2 to 5 flowers that are white, red, yellowish and pink. Flowers are 5 to 10 cm long, 3cm wide, curved calyx bell shaped 2 cm long, 2 lobed, fine teeth like serration, fleshy. 

Leaves are alternate in distichous arrangement; lamina long and linear and leaf sheath covering the internodes; ligule membranous and auricle claw shaped. The inflorescence is a spike and florets are borne on rachis node. Each spikelet has three florets. In two row barely, lateral spikelets become sterile.

Molecular markers may be a short DNA sequence that flanks base pairs like SNP, a Single Nucleotude Polymorphism, small fragment or SSR Single Sequence Repeat or an extended site as in the case of microsatellites. Schematic representation of the SSR assay is shown in Fig. 1. Genetic markers have to be easily identified, linked to a specific locus and polymorphic. Molecular markers are subdivided into codominant monolocus and polyallelic markers and the second group contains dominant, polyallelic and biallelic markers. 

Deterioration of Crop varieties in their genetic endowments/qualities has been explained by Kadam (1942). Publication on maintenance and management of breeder seed production (Laverack 1991), and maintennce of self pollinated crop varieies (De Hanns 1953; Parlevliet 2007) explain in detail various aspects in maintenance of the seed quality.

Crop improvement is a continuous process. Crop improvement aims to genetically enhance, enrich and empower the crop plants with superior performance, enhanced yield level, higher quality of food, nutritional, fodder, energy produce and adaptability to climate change and crop growing environments. The intrinsic virtues of the improved cultivars could be sustained mainly through the production of the quality assured seeds endowed with genetic capabilities. The quality assured seed delivery system is through the seed chain from the basic seeds through Nucleus-Breeder-Foundation-Certified seed. Quality seed production system need to be based on genetic, breeding and seed technological protocols including field and laboratory testing to ensure very high genetic purity, true to type and superiority.

Synthetic seeds are also known as somatic seeds, artificial seeds, clonal seeds and synseeds. They are analogue for botanical seeds. Somatic embryoids which are tissue culture produced embyoids with bipolar structures, apical and basal meristematic regions which are capable of forming shoot and root respectively. Somatic embryoids are encapsulated and are used as artificial seeds possessing the ability to convert into plants in in vitro and ex vitro conditions. Artificial seeds are broadly two types.

Organically produced seeds are obtained by adapting the organic crop production system. Organic seed is a critical input but specialised efforts to produce organic seeds are not adequately and systematically followed. Accredited organic farming standards recognises the organic seed production as a prerequisite to organic farming. Seed health is important in organic seeds since seeds are not treated with chemical fungicides.

In vitro cloning is a vegetative propagation performed in the Plant Tissue Culture system. In vitro micropropagation cloning propagation is mostly applied to the vegetatively propagated plants and in particular in ornamental, fruit and in a few orchard crops and in vegetable crops besides in many forest tree species.

Micrografting is a method to produce virus free, viroid free and disease free grafts that are clonally propagated. This method is an aid to mass multiplication. In vitro grafting is applied to difficult to root clones. Micrografting is performed to understand incompatibility prediction between the two grafting partners, virus indexing, deduction of latent virus, safe germplasm exchange and to do grafting functions throughout the year. It is not season specific. Protocols for micrografting are available for almond, pistachia, olive, prunus, grape, mulberry, cashew, citrus, peach, pear, avocado, hazlenut, walnut, chestnut and grape fruit (Hussein et al., 2014).

Clonal crops belong to at least 34 families including herbs, shrubs, trees and vines. Clonal crop improvement dates back to 10,000 years ago. The diversity of clonal crops and their wild relatives are very significant but not yet fully understood and exploited. Many crops represent combination of sexual and clonal reproduction. Different parts of the clonal crops which may or may not be the same as consumed parts have been shaped as clonal propagules such as stem, setts, tuber, rhizome, corms and bulbs among others.

Genetic purity is the vital determinant in continuing the genetic integrity in seed from generation to generation. This is the basis of variety purity maintenance. The genetic purity depends upon the purity of the seeds planted. The genetic purity of the seeds planted must exceed or equal to the final product purity standards required as the purity generally decreases with subsequent generations of propagation. The improved varieties loose their identity and healthiness unless properly maintained. Maintenance selection can prevent the seed quality deterioration.

1. Seed is the key ingredient in establishment and expansion, diversification and improvement of crops/and crop husbandry.

2. Seed is the most effective and efficient means of crop propagation.

India had fourfold increase in population from 0.3 billion to 1.34 billion and registered a fivefold increase in food grain production from 50 million tons to
285 million tons in 2018 (Paroda, 2020). 

Intercropping with food crops and vegetables is widely practiced by small and marginal farmers of the world mainly belonging to arid and semi-arid regions. Because of several benefits obtained, farmers prefer to adopt intercropping system. In temperate regions, mixed stands of cover crops and combinations of cereal and legumes forage production are very common.

Enhancement of population is a global issue and the expected world population will be 9.7 billion in 2050 (UN, 2019). Under the situation, achievement of food and nutritional security is a major target with reduction of GHGs to the atmosphere and mitigation of ill effects of climate change. Modern agriculture is responsible for emission of GHGs in many ways and one of them is production of synthetic N fertilizer. There is no doubt about the fact that chemical N fertilizers enhance crop yield but it is at the cost of atmospheric equilibrium and agricultural sustainability cannot be achieved by this practice (Bedoussac et al. 2015; Layek et al., 2018).

In the current situation, crop intensification is of topmost importance to increase agricultural production from ever-limiting and degrading resources. In this regard, the potential of agroforestry can be thought that offers ample opportunity to enhance farm output with multifaceted benefits (Xu et al., 2019). Forests are known to maintain ecological balance in many ways with greater ecosystem services; hence, the advantages of forestry can be included in agroecosystem in the form of agroforestry which enables yield of forest products and crops together

Worldwide, agriculture contributes a lot for mankind by providing food and feed for human beings and livestock, respectively. The countries where agriculture plays a vital role, it has enough importance in the economy of the country as well as gross domestic product (GDP).

Agriculture is an important factor for human civilization as it not only provides food, feed for the livestock, fibre, fuel and industrial raw material but also supports the livelihood of a wide range of world population. Besides, it shows its prominent presence in the economy of the developing countries. Being a developing country, agriculture is the largest sector in India where about 54% of the population is engaged. The growth of agriculture in India during last seven and half decades (after independence) is quite remarkable in terms of sufficient food-grains production as well as in achieving self-sufficiency in food production. The task to achieve it was not so easy.

During recent time, world agriculture is in search of sustainability in farming. However, it is tedious job for the developing countries because of poor input management and degradation of resources, ever-growing human population and increasing demand for food and livestock feed, and shrinkage of land and other natural resources.

Agriculture is the mainstay of the economy in different developing countries and it is not only nourishing the population, but also contributing a major share in country’s gross domestic product (GDP). During the second half of the twentieth century and after, modern agriculture encouraged intensive cropping with high cost and consumption of fossil-fuel based energy. Yield enhancement was achieved by adoption of modern technologies, but that was at the cost of ecological unbalance.

The competitive relations among the cultivated crop species perform a relation and these are pronounced during the early growth period of the crops and during later phases. The crop’s performance is reflected into the yield output. Intercropping research so far conducted is based on the experimental layout of either replacement or additive series.

Predominantly, an agrarian society is mostly dependent on the farm sector. Agriculture plays an important role in Indian economy notwithstanding its shrinkage in share in the gross domestic product (GDP) of the country being 55.4% in 1950-’51 and 17.4% in 2018-’19 (Tripathy, 2019). Still the agriculture and allied sector is providing employment to 54 percent of the Indian population.

Oats originated in the Mediterranean region and from there it spread to most of the countries of the world like U.S.A., Russia, Canada, Poland, Australia, France and Germany.

Maize is an ideal forage crop grown throughout the country. It is quick growing, high yielding and provides palatable and nutritious forage which can be fed at any stage of growth without any risk to animals. Maize produces good quality herbaceous fodder with high digestibility. On an average, it contains 9-10% crude protein, 60-64% neutral detergent fibre, 38-41% acid detergent fibre, 28-30% cellulose and 23-25% hemi cellulose on dry matter basis when harvested at milk to early-dough stage. It can be fed as green or dry and makes excellent silage.

Origin is generally accepted that the genetic/evolutionary origin of lucerne is in the near east center of Vavilof and that the species developed in Asia Minor, Iran and the highlands of Turkmenistan. All these areas have cold winters and hot dry summers. The soil is well drained with an approximately neutral pH and has subsoils with deposits of calcium (lime). Sinskaya, a Russian, asserts that lucerne originated in two areas and that there was a second development in central Asia.

They are short duration crops. Fodder is available for use in short period, e.g., cowpea and soybean can be harvested within 50-60 days of sowing. Being short duration crops, they can fit well in the gaps between two crops or seasons as catch crop.

It is a tufted aromatic perennial herb with fibrous roots, erect over 2 m tall, with smooth leaves and bearing a large inflorescence.

Origin: The origin of citronella is Sri Lanka

It is a perennial grass about 2 to 3m tall with profuse tillering habit having linear lanceolate leaves. The inflorescence is a highly branched terminal panicle.

Origin: The origin is India

Mints are a group of perennial herbaceous plants, belonging to the family Lamiaceae: Labiatae, which yield essential oil on distillation. The various species of mints which are commercially cultivated in different parts of the world are: Japanese mint or corn mint or field mint (Mentha arvensis subsp haplocalyx Briquet var. Piperscens Holmes var. Javanica), peppermint (M. Piperita L.) spearmint or garden mint or lamb mint (M. spicata L.) and bergamot mint or orange mint (M. citrata Ehrh.)

Jaggery making is a simple process comprising crushing of sugarcane for juice extraction, filtration and boiling of juice for concentration and then cooling and solidifying to give jiggery blocks.

The Sustainable Sugarcane Initiative (SSI) aims at providing practical options to the farmers in improving the productivity of land, water and labour, all at the same time. SSI is also expected to reduce the overall pressure on water resources and contribute to the recovery of ecosystems. Sustainable Sugarcane Initiative is an innovative method of sugarcane production using less seeds, less water and optimum utilization of fertilizers and land to achieve more yields.

Indian canes probably originated in the moist parts of North Eastern India from some plants closely related to Saccharum spontaneum (Barber, 1931). Brandes (1956) concluded that tropical cane might have originated in some of the larger islands of Oceania countries most probably in New Guinea, where various forms of thick, tall tropical canes have been grown from ancient times. Parthasarathy (1946) believed that India is the original home of Saccharum officinarum.

Sunflower was introduced as an oil seed crop in India in 1967. The crop is now widely cultivated in all parts of India and in any type of situation. Sunflower belongs to Compositae family and the cultivated species is Helianthus annus spp. macrocarpus. Apart from the edible oil species, there are non-oily types, other edible forms and ornaments. Helianthus tuberosus gives the edible tubers.

Rapeseed and mustard are termed in different names in different places. Sarson and toria (lahi) are generally termed as rape seeds. Rai, raya or laha are termed as mustard. Rape seed and mustard belongs to the species Brassica of the family Cruciferae. It is an annual plant or biennial herbs. Rape seed and mustard are the major rabi oilseed crops of India.

Pea (Pisum sativum L.), the famous plant in which G.H. Mendel worked out Mendel Laws and Genetic Principles, is a noble and aristocratic vegetable. The crop is cultivated for its tender and immature pods for use as vegetable and mature dry pods for use as a pulse. In both cases, seeds are separated and used as vegetable or pulse.

Lentil is one of the oldest nutritious rabi pulse crop. The whole or splitted seeds are used in preparing dal and delicious namkin commonly called dalmoth. The splitted seeds are also used in making soup and porridge. Green pods are used as vegetables. The leaves and stalks are used as cattle feed.

The ancient wisdom of the Indians about the value of pulses in human nutrition is perhaps, responsible to an extent for the widespread vegetarianism in our country. The staple pulse component in combination with cereals in our diet emanates from this recognition, Modern nutritionists also substantiate that this combination is superior to either pulse or cereal alone.