eChapters

Drones have transformed agricultural operations, especially in crop monitoring, by providing farmers with an efficient and economical method to collect real-time data on their crops. Drones, outfitted with sophisticated sensors, cameras, and imaging technology, can obtain intricate aerial perspectives of extensive agricultural landscapes. This enables farmers to oversee crop health, identify early indicators of diseases, pests, and nutrient deficits, and evaluate water levels or irrigation requirements. Drones offer essential insights for precision agriculture, enabling farmers to make informed decisions that enhance output, minimize resource use, and improve overall crop management. Drones’ capacity to swiftly and precisely cover extensive regions has rendered them an essential instrument in contemporary agriculture.
UNDERSTANDING DRONE CROP MONITORING
Crop monitoring using drones is the deployment of drones fitted with specialized sensors and imaging systems to collect data regarding crops and their environment. The data undergoes processing and analysis, yielding outcomes that offer farmers practical insights to enhance crop output, decrease input costs, and mitigate environmental effect. The goal is to employ technology to enhance understanding of crop performance, so enabling more informed management decisions.
The procedure for drone crop monitoring generally encompasses the subsequent steps:

2.1 INTRODUCTION

GIS is a tool that can be used in varied disciplines ranging from civil engineering to business. Remote sensing data is often brought into GIS to have a complete data set in many natural resource application areas. Full capability of GIS is not used widely. Many a times people use GIS only for digitising maps and to do simple query on maps. But it can also be used in modeling, simulation and forecasting, only then one may regard GIS technology is utilised to its full potential. Some GIS softwares handle simple problems for location based services while other complex softwares posses advanced modules to do all types of spatial, network and 3D analysis. Integration of softwares used in natural resources study are being interfaced with GIS to create scenarios.

Remote sensing and GIS technology is useful in the following fields:

The main objective of nanomedicine broadly defined as the comprehensive monitoring, repairing and improvement of all human biological systems, working from the molecular level using engineered devices and nanostructures to achieve medical benefit. Nanomedicine is the nanomachine of diagnosing, treating, and preventing disease and traumatic injury, relieving pain, and of preserving and improving human health, using molecular tools and molecular knowledge of the human body. Nanotechnology applications in medical science can be essential in achieving this goal. These applications involves extensive surveillance, control, creation, repair, and defence of all biological human systems, employing designed nanodevices and nanostructures which works in molecular level.

Mulching

The technique of covering the soil with plastic films or natural crop left over (residues) for soil and water conservations is called mulching.

This technique was practiced by farmers using dry leaves straw, trash, stones etc to conserve water. Presently plastic film have come into use for the purpose of mulching due to inherent advantages.

Abstract

Remote sensing is the art and science of obtaining information about an object or phenomenon without having any contact with the object concerned. Geographical information system is a tool to create, manage, retrieve and query spatial databases. Remote sensing in conjunction with Geographical Information System (GIS) has wide applications in all spheres of life and especially in agriculture. Specifically, this paper reveals some of the applications of remote sensing and GIS in the field of crop condition assessment viz., crop type classification, crop stress detection, crop yield estimation and pest and disease monitoring.

Keywords : Remote Sensing, GIS, Yield Forecasting, Crop Stress, Pest and Disease Monitoring

1.0 Introduction

Remote sensing is the art and science of obtaining information about an object or phenomenon without there being any physical contact. The information is so collected using a device called a sensor. The sensors are mounted on a platform at an advantageous position. Accordingly the remote sensing is called ground based (sensor is hand held or mounted on mast), air borne (sensor is on a balloon or aero plane) or space borne (sensor is mounted on a satellite). The basic principle in remote sensing is that each and every object has unique reflecting property like human thumb impression and when the solar energy is falling on an object a part of it gets reflected, which carries the information about the object. The reflected light is converted in to reflection percentage of incoming solar radiation. This percentage of reflection can be used to work out the vegetation indices which are surrogate measure of crop condition.

Geographical Information System (GIS) is software system which enable Collection of large volume of data with spatial relation Integration of data from different source is possible Analyze such data for our requirement Present the data in different formats (maps, table and reports)

Applications of Remote Sensing

The era of satellite remote sensing was open in the 1960s when cameras and electronic sensors were mounted on spacecraft. Nowadays there is a big assortment of satellite systems actively recording information about the Earth. A wide variety of imagery is available from satellites. Both active and passive sensors, operating from the microwave to the ultraviolet regions of the electromagnetic spectrum collect a large amount of information about the earth’s surface every day. Each of the systems vary in terms of their spatial, spectral, radiometic and temporal resolution. Those characteristics play an important role in defining which applications the sensor is best suited for. The main benefits of satellite remote sensing are the following:

Abstract

Any country’s socio-economic development essentially depends on land and water resources. Resource depletion takes place when there is an overstretching due the exploding population, calling for prudent management of the resources. Application of remote sensing and Geographical Information System (GIS) tools in the management of natural resources at different levels including watersheds is quite well known. In addition, applied geoinformatics are also used in research on management of these delicate resources also besides characterization. There is a continuous advent in technology in both hardware and software necessitating updation of application scientist/manager. Once an exclusive tool of elite institutions and government agencies, GISnow became an indispensible part of our day-to-day life. As the urge for information intensifies, new applications of GIS continue to evolve. A concerted effort is needed to develop an information system when vast expanses of natural resources are to be managed and a combination of information tools like remote sensing, global positioning system and GIS always updates the database effectively. However, the cost factor should not hinder the applications at micro level. This necessity calls for attention to popularize free and open sources of software (FOSS) and data (particularly digital elevation models (DEM) and satellite imagery) to put the techniques into use by enthusiasts at village level such that a database at a regional level can be built through participatory GIS. It is in this direc tion the av ailab le li terat ure on appl ied geoinformatics coupled with use of FOSS is reviewed and presented in this article to give an idea as to how an open ended information system could be developed to help the management.

Keywords: Natural resources, management, Remote sensing, GIS, FOSS, DEM

These three requirements are required to be followed in sequence for getting maximum benefits. However, integrated rural energy concept is a new area of work and not much experience is available in this field as compared to other rural development activities. It is difficult to give any guidelines for planning. One can only recommend approaches and not solutions to planning.

The rural area in developing countries are almost always rich in one or another sources of energy, which could be used separately or in combination with other sources in decentralized small scale units, or even on a household scale. Thus, the problem is one of good planning, management and a strong educational and promotions campaign, rather than the non availability of resources or the lack of technology. Further, after planning, prefect development of device and their effective operation is required.

The purpose of the Integrated Rural Energy Planning project should be clearly defined. It may design either for research and development or demonstration for Popularisation of system, education and training, promotion, health or combination of these.

It is usually better to start with a small size to gain experience and build up confidence before undertaking the large scale project. As defined earlier, one of primary requirement of Integrated Rural Energy Planning is to develop energy demand pattern, energy supply system and optimally match demand with supply.

This chapter introduces approaches for understanding, assessing, and reducing the vulnerability of forest ecosystems to climate change. It examines the impacts of changing climatic conditions on forests and considers factors such as forest fragmentation, biodiversity, tree density, disturbance, and community dependence on forest resources. The chapter discusses methods and models for vulnerability assessment, including indicator-based and spatial approaches, and explains how vulnerability can be mapped and classified. It also considers strategies for minimizing climate impacts and enhancing forest resilience through appropriate management and conservation interventions.

• Content approach

We can identify several different ‘traditional’ approaches to curriculum development. The most common approach until recently is the ‘content’ approach. This is where the curriculum is basically a list of knowledge – things that the agricultural graduating learners need to know. Usually this list is made by a curriculum development committee or group of experts identified at the national level.

Summary

This chapter looks at the various approaches available to the farmer for the management of soil fertility. In general there are four approaches, namely, physical, biological and chemical approaches as well as the cropping systems or agronomic approach.This chapter discusses three approaches, physical, biological and cropping system or agronomic approaches. Chemical approach has been treated in chapter 7 of this book. Inoculation is an important technique in legume production. This chapter also looks at inoculation and how it is done.

Leisa

Sustainable agriculture is an important element of the overall effort to make human activities compatible with the demands of the earth’s eco-system. Thus, an understanding of the different approaches to ecological agriculture is necessary if we want to utilise the planet’s resources wisely.

While sustainable agriculture is based on long-term goals but not a specific set of farming practices, it is usually accompanied by a reduction of purchased inputs in favor of managing on-farm resources. A good example is reliance on biologically-fixed nitrogen from legumes versus manufactured nitrogen fertilizers. Low-input agriculture is one of several alternative farming systems whose methods are adaptable to sustainable agriculture.

Low-input farming is based on a reduction—but not necessarily elimination—of chemical fertilizers, insecticides, and herbicides. Farmers are adopting these practices primarily to reduce costs, but also because they want to minimize impact on the environment or because they perceive future pesticide regulations.

In a search for information on how to farm with fewer chemicals, it is helpful to examine alternative farming systems in existence that largely exclude chemicals in favor of biological farming practices. Experiences of producers who have successfully practiced these methods are valuable to farmers considering a transition to low-input sustainable agriculture.

A major portion of the earth’s surface is water. Apart from the oceans, major water bodies on the earth’s surface include rivers, streams, lakes, ponds and canals. Plants adapted to these ecosystems form the aquatic species. When they pose a problem to navigation, fisheries and agriculture and also cause health hazards, they are categorised as aquatic weeds. Problems due to aquatic weeds has been reported from different parts of the world. They are common in warm waters. In Florida, it is reported that water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes) covers nearly 40,000 hectares of water resources.

Aquatic weeds are those unwanted plants which grow in water and complete at least a part of their life cycle in water. Aquatic weed problem is a global one but more pronounced in tropical and subtropical zones, where warm weather supports profuse growth of aquatic plants. In India, large irrigation projects have been reported to be adversely affected by profusely growing aquatic weeds, that block canals reducing water flow by as much as four-fifths. (Dr. K.T. Chandy,  2010).

1. Harmful Effects of Aquatic Weeds

The important harmful effects of aquatic weeds are as follows
 
    (i)    The aquatic weeds mainly Submerged, immersed, and marginal weeds in and along irrigation canals, ditches, and drainage channels impede water flow, increase evaporation, cause damage to canals and structures and clogs gates, siphons, valves, sprinkler heads, bridge piers, pumps, etc.

Introduction
 
Biodiversity a term to describe variability between organisms or populations of organisms, has different facets depending on the level of diversity considered (Species, population, ecosystem) or the organisms concerned (Barbault, 1992). Biodiversity can be exploited in many ways at scientific levels, the best known and the most ancient no doubt being in taxonomy and systematics, and more recently for studies of population biology, evolution and conservation of ecosystems, or for selection of materials for biotechnology.

Abstract

Agroforestry is an intensive land use management system that integrates trees, shrubs, crops, etc. on a landscape level to achieve optimum benefits. Agroforestry is not only concerned with beneficial effects of one component on another, but it also involves the manipulations of negative effects to minimize their influence on the productivity of the overall system. In an agroforestry, trees and crops compete inevitably for light, nutrients, moisture and other resources. The interactions between tree and crop roots can also have an effect on soil organisms, which play an essential role in the functioning and productivity of agroforesty systems. Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) are one of the most important components of the soil biota in monoculture and agroforestry systems. AM fungi can rehabilitate degraded lands subjected to agroforestry systems and common mycorrhizal network may further enhance the benefits of agroforestry through vertical niche expansion of AMF. However, management practices of agroforestry affect mycorrhization, AMF community composition and diversity of AM fungi. This review focuses on AMF diversity, which plays a significant role in agroforestry systems.

Abstract

Contamination groundwater and soil due to heavy metals (HMs) has aggravated into a threat not only for people inhabiting the polluted areas but also for the vegetation of the region. Relying on the use of obligate symbionts, arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) in remediation of contaminated sites can be a productive approach. These fungi due to high cation exchange capacity have the ability to adsorb heavy metals (HMs) on fungal tissues; they also possess enzymes responsible for reduction of metals to less toxic forms. In areas with high toxicity of various HMs such as lead, AMF extends its extraradical mycelium (ERM) beyond the depletion zone of plant roots increasing the availability of nutrients such as potassium, phosphorus, magnesium, and sulphur resulting in increased plant growth and yield. Production of phenol and organic acids by the fungus have been reported to increase iron diffusion, that is a co-factor for antioxidant enzyme superoxide dismutase. AMF sequester HMs in fungal structures and bind them in their chitin cell walls preventing their translocation to aerial plant parts.

Abstract

Soil salinization is an important factor limiting crop production, mainly in the arid and semiarid regions of the world. Nevertheless, plants naturally have evolved several physiological, biochemical and molecular mechanisms to establish and thrive in salt stressed soils. In addition to breeding crops for salt tolerance, recent emphasis is on exploring the possible role of plant-microbe interactions in amelioration of salt stress in plants. It is now well established that arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) symbiosis alleviates the effect of salt stress in plants. Further, available evidence does suggest that AM symbiosis regulates many of the plant’s salt stress alleviation mechanisms. However, the molecular basis for many of these mechanisms is yet to be ascertained. In this chapter, we summarize the current knowledge on the role of AM symbiosis in alleviation of salt stress in crop plants, which now appears to be a promising strategy to improve crop yield in salt stressed soils.

Abstract

The paper discusses patentability aspect of subject matter. Patentable subject matter must satisfy three basic criteria i.e. novelty, inventiveness and industrial applicability, though few subject matter satisfying all the three basic criteria stated above may still be not patentable in specific jurisdiction based on certain circumstances or as stated in the patent act of the specified jurisdiction. Therefore grant of a patent is subject to certain limitations mentioned in the section 3 and 4 of the Indian Patent Act for Indian jurisdiction. The aim of this paper is to study such limitations in detail.

Introduction

Soil is a very precious natural resource. It is considered as the epicentre of all the life forms on earth. One cm of soil takes about 1000 years to form but if not used sustainably and managed properly, it may degrade and get converted into a wasteland in just few countable years. The heavy population load, rapid industrialization, unscientific agricultural practices have already put a lot of pressure on soil resulting in reduced soil fertility, degraded wastelands and problematic soils. In India, out of the 329 m ha of geographical area, nearly 50% is subjected to degradation by the various agents like water, wind and biotic interference. In this chapter we will focus on the wastelands and problematic soils, their distribution, cause of formation, management practices mainly in respect to the Indian state of Jharkhand.