eChapters

Finger millet (Ragi/ Mandua) is the principal small millet grown in South Asia. It is believed to be native of India (De condole, 1886) but according to Vavilov (1926) it originated in Abyssinia.

1.1 Introduction Millets were one of the first crops to be domesticated by mankind in Asia and Africa which later spread across the globe as critical food sources to the evolving civilizations. The earliest evidence of millets has been found in the Indus civilization around 3000 BC. Millets are a collective group of small-seeded annual grasses that are grown as grain crops, primarily on marginal land in dry areas of temperate, sub-tropical and tropical regions (FAO). However, due to the popularity of the cereal crops like wheat, rice and maize; millets have lost dominion and have become an underutilized crop in last few decades. Millets have the potential to be the crop of the future, as our major crops have reached yield plateau, also changing climate has introduced several new biotic and abiotic stresses to the major crops, so to feed the ever-growing population we need to shift towards other potential crops. India is the largest producer of millet as it contributes about 41% of the total millet production of the world (APEDA, 2020).

Three years after the establishment of the Central Institute of Fisheries Education (CIFE), a global conference was held at Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, for promoting environmentally sustainable development in all spheres of human activity. At this UN Conference on Environment and Development, generally referred to as the Earth Summit, an Agenda 21 was adopted to provide guidelines for mainstreaming ecology in all major research and development programmes. In Agenda 21, pride of place has been given to the management of aquatic resources from both the quantitative and qualitative aspects. 2012 marks the twentieth anniversary of the Rio conference.  It will be useful to prepare a balance sheet indicating where we have succeeded and where we have failed in implementing Agenda 21 in the area of inland and marine fisheries, as well as integrated coastal zone management.

Key facts

    
•    Fish is an important source of animal protein for billions of people (estimate 2.6 billion people). About 200 million people and their dependants worldwide, mostly in developing countries, live by fishing and aquaculture. 
    
•    Fish living in temperate and Polar Regions could be benefited from climate changes since an increase in water temperature would extend the fish growing season. Moreover, rising temperature could reduce over-wintering stress normally experienced by temperate fishes.
    
•    Rise of temperature may cause a decrease in dissolved oxygen (DO) or hypoxic conditions (as temperature and DO are inversely related) and can impair fish reproduction and may cause endocrine disruption in fish (increase incidence of malformations and may alter sex differentiation and sex determination in fish).
    
•    Bioavailability and toxicity of common pollutants such as pesticides and heavy metals may be enhanced with increasing temperatures. Therefore, exposure of toxicants at elevated temperatures may cause a decline in recreational and commercial fisheries.

India is endowed with 8118 kilometers of coastline and access to 5.3 lakh square kilometers of continental shelf to facilitate marine fishing.195210 kilometers long river and canal system, more than 6 million hectares of water bodies under reservoirs, ponds, Fish is an integral part of food and culture in India. Indian coastal region is rich in aquatic bio diversity with various identified fish species and also in aquatic resources. India with its vast and varied marine and inland resources stands third in world total fish production and second in inland fish production. India’s fish production has increased from 5.6 million tonne during 2000-2001 to 6.9 million tonne during 2006-2007. During the year 2006-07, the country witnessed foreign exchange of Rs.8363.53 crore through export of sea food. Fish processing industries in India are gaining importance in recent years due to increase in demand of processed food by the developed countries. In India fishery sector provide livelihood to an estimated 10 million people and the Inland fisheries are of particular importance to the rural poor accounting for about 15% of total global employment (FAO, 2000). Sustainable utilization of available resources with appropriate farming system approaches will increase fish production and also will generate employment opportunities.

Nutrient adsorption in soil is one of the important phenomena in terms of nutrient availability to plants. Due to the nutrient fixation of the added nutrients supplied through fertilizers or manures may result the increase in cost of production due to the non-availability of the added nutrients at the optimum level to the plants. Hence, management options are required to release the sorbed nutrients from soil for better availability to the plants. The ion-fixation is driven by physico-chemical and biological processes and varies under agro ecological situations. The chemistry of ion fixation in the form of specific or non-specific adsorption on soil colloids will help understanding the bonding and adsorption reactions of ions in the soil.

8.0 What is fixation?

Fixation of plant nutrients in soil may be defined as the process, where readily soluble plant nutrients are transformed into less soluble forms by physical or chemical reaction with organic or inorganic compounds and thus restricting the mobility of ions in soil that leads to the decrease in availability to the plants. There are two kinds of fixation in general, viz; cation (N, K, Fe, Mn, Cu, Zn, Ca,Mg etc.) and anion (P, B, Mo etc.) in soils. The fixation of ions in soil is governed by important physical and chemical parameters of soil based on which the available pools of nutrients for plants may be determined.

9.1 Introduction

Flood water which is in the form of a hydrograph when passes down a river section undergoes several changes in its form. There may be some addition of water to the river section when the flood wave passes down the river section. There may be some diversion of water from the section. Thus, depending on the addition or abstraction of water to the incoming flood water, shape of the flood hydrograph in the downstream section may change. Sometimes channel storage and resistance to flow of water in the channel section also affects the shape of the flood hydrograph.

7.1 Introduction

Flood is an unusually high stage in a river resulted due to high rainfall or snow melt which causes large flow of runoff in it. During flood, the river overflows the banks and inundates the adjoining areas. Flood causes heavy damages to buildings and hydraulic structures besides causing catastrophic loss to human life and property. It causes great economic loss due to disruption of many structures and damage to agricultural fields. Many forest and aquatic lives are affected by the flood. Hundreds of crores of rupees are spent every year to control, forecast and manage the flood.

12.1 Meaning and Definition

A flow chart is a graphical or symbolic representation of a process. Each step in the process is represented by a different symbol and contains a short description of the process step. The flow chart symbols are linked together with arrows showing the process flow direction. This diagrammatic representation can give a step-by-step solution to a given problem. Flowcharts are used in analyzing, designing, documenting or managing a process or program in various fields.

7.1 Determination of Hydraulic Conductivity of Saturated Soil Laboratory Methods

Hydraulic conductivity of a saturated soil indicates the ease with which water is transmitted through the soil pores. If a constant water head (h) is maintained on a saturated soil column of length (L) and the volume of water (V) percolating per unit time (t) through per unit cross sectional area (A) to the other end, then according to Darcy’s Law, the rate of flow of liquid or flux (q) is proportional to the hydraulic gradient (ÄH/L) across the length of soil column.

6.1. Determination of Hydraulic Conductivity of Saturated Soil: Laboratory Methods

Hydraulic conductivity of a saturated soil indicates the ease with which water is transmitted through the soil pores. If a constant water head (h) is maintained on a saturated soil column of length (L) and the volume of water (V) percolating per unit time (t) through per unit cross sectional area (A) to the other end, then according to Darcy’s Law the rate of flow of liquid or flux (q) is proportional to the hydraulic gradient (ΔH/L) across the length of soil column.

Floriculture is the most important aspect of urban agriculture, which fulfils the need for beautification, recreation, entertainment and income earning. In broader sense, it includes growing flowering and ornamental plants in gardens, rooftops and terraces. Floriculture comprises of house plants, flowering plants, pot plants, cut flowers and decorative foliage. It also deals with cultivation of cacti, orchids, succulents, bonsai, ferns and plants grown in landscape gardening.

Role of flowers in our life

• It is a unique gift of nature to relax human mind
• The fragrance and beauty of flowers bring joy and happiness
• Flowers are used as a symbol of grace and sophistication
• Flowers are used in religious rituals for offering during worship

1.1. Floral biology

1.1. 1. Types of inflorescence

Group or cluster of flowers arranged on a stem that is composed of a main branch or a complicated arrangement of branches.

Technical Term           Definition

Fluid Mechanics         Fluid Mechanics is a study of physical behavior of fluids and fluid systems, and laws governing their behavior. It incorporates action of forces

                                   on fluids and the resulting flow pattern

Fluorescein diacetate (3’ 6’-diacetyl-fluorescein) is a fluorescein conjugated to two acetate radicals. This colourless compound is hydrolysed by both free (exoenzymes) and membrane bound enzymes, releasing a coloured end product, fluorescein. This end product absorbs strongly in the visible wavelength (490 nm) and can be measured by spectrophotometry. The enzymes responsible for FDA hydrolysis are plentiful in the soil environment. Non-specific esterases, proteases and lipases, have been shown to hydrolyse FDA. The hydrolysis of FDA by soil enzymes can be estimated by methods of Adam and Duncan (2001).

Abstract

The anomalies observed in the reverine systems have been demonstrated to be the potential tool in deciphering the tectonically active zones. Such various drainage anomalies viz: radial drainages, anomalous compressed meanders, eyed drainage and the youthful floodplains observed in Annamali – Palani - Varushanad hill ranges of the Western Ghats of Tamil Nadu show that the N-S and NE-SW trending faults are tectonically active in the recent years.

Introduction
 
Arid western part of Rajasthan which contains the Indian segment of the Thar Desert, accounts for ~62% of the country’s hot arid area and is a region of low rainfall. Under such physico-climatic situation, fluvial processes function much less frequently and more episodically than the aeolian processes, but their impacts on landforms and society are large, as noticed on several occasions in arid regions. There is a distinct east-west gradient of rainfall and temperature in the region. Along the eastern margin bordering Aravallies, the mean annual rainfall is 500 mm while in the westernmost part at Jaisalmer, it is less than 150 mm. The rainfall is largely monsoon driven which brings 80 - 90 per cent of total rainfall received during the year. There is large inter-annual rainfall variability of rainfall which leads to climatic extremes of drought and floods of different magnitudes. For example on an average, the Thar Desert in India experiences flood-causing rainfall in 2-3 years in a decade, but a maximum of 5 flood causing rainfall years in a decade was recorded during the 1950s, 1970s and the 1990s (Rao et al. 2006).

SUMMARY

Fly ash, a waste product generated by coal based thermal power plants. The annual production of fly ash in the country has increased from 40 million tones in 1994 to 110 million tones in 2004 and it is expected that by 2012 the annual production of fly would reach the mark of 170 million tones. Owing to its physico-chemical characteristics, it has a vast potential for use in agriculture, forestry and wasteland reclamation. Application of fly ash into soil has been reported to increase the water holding capacity, hydraulic conductivity, porosity and decrease bulk density, modulus of rupture and surface encrustation. The studies conducted by various organizations on fly ash use in different crops have revealed significant increase in the crop yields such as wheat, maize, paddy, soybean, sunflower and vegetables like brinjal, tomato, potato, cabbage. Application of fly ash has been found to increase the level of heavy metals  viz., Co, Pb, Mo, As and Se as well as the activity of radio-nuclides i.e., ⁴⁰K, ²²⁶Ra, ²²⁸Ac  in the soil- plant system; however, the levels of all these heavy metals and radio-nuclides were found to be well below the permissible limits.

Cowpea is a quick growing leguminous forage crop. It is usually grown mixed with cereal fodders and grasses to improve the nutritive value of the herbage. It contains 20 – 24 % crude protein, 43 - 49 % neutral detergent fibre, 34 – 37 % acid detergent fibre, 23– 25 % cellulose and 5 – 6 % hemicelluloses on dry matter basis. The digestibility of cowpea fodder is above 70%. Cowpea can be grown under partial shaded conditions. It is an excellent cover crop, which suppresses weeds and enriches the soil. Cowpea requires warm climate with good atmospheric humidity. It can be grown in kharif as well as in zaid season.

Berseem is very important rabi season legume fodder and popularly know as the “King” of fodder crops.

Berseem (Trifolium alexandrinum L.)

Berseem, also called Egyptian clover, is an important winter forage.

Family : Leguminaceae

Importance

• It is quite nutritive and succulent highly pelatible. It has 20% crude protein and 70% dry matter digestibility
• Forage is also rich in calcium and phosphorus.
• Berseem cultivation changes chemical characters of soil

Maize is an ideal forage crop grown throughout the country. It is quick growing, high yielding and provides palatable and nutritious forage which can be fed at any stage of growth without any risk to animals. Maize produces good quality herbaceous fodder with high digestibility. On an average, it contains 9-10% crude protein, 60-64% neutral detergent fibre, 38-41% acid detergent fibre, 28-30% cellulose and 23-25% hemi cellulose on dry matter basis when harvested at milk to early-dough stage. It can be fed as green or dry and makes excellent silage.

Forages: The term forages denote plants that are used for feeding the animals that are cultivated in the farm, or it may be a wild used for stock feeding grown for the vegetative purpose. The vegetative phase is encouraged and the reproductive phase is suppressed.

Abstract
 
Pop sorghum, apart from popping qualities has also shown the potential fodder yielding abilities. A field experiment was conducted at University of Agricultural Sciences, Dharwad, Karnataka during kharif 2001 under rainfed situation.

Water vapour changes to the liquid water through condensation process. Condensation is the direct cause of the various forms of precipitation. It occurs as a result of changes in air volume, temperature, pressure or humidity. Water vapour can also be converted directly into the solid form through a process called sublimation. The latent heat expended in evaporation is liberated in the process of condensation. Four mechanisms may lead to condensation.

Foliage plants are grown for attractive branches and leaves. These plants have several benefits such as improving air quality, promoting better mental & physical health and enhancing the aesthetic value of the immediate vicinity. Some of the foliage plants grown in indoor or in the garden are described in this chapter.

Dieffenbachia

Dieffenbachia is a foliage plant with large and showy leaves. This is native to the West Indies. It is a very popular plant grown in the home gardens due to easy maintenance. The beauty of the plant lies in the unique pattern of colour combination of the leaves. The leaves are yellow near the vein, which turns dark green towards the edge. This combination is random and even within the same leaf, different patterns of ribbons and spots of yellow & green are formed. It can be taken up under various light intensity and growing conditions. Dieffenbachia plants grow up to 2.4 meter height with wide leaves of around 50 cm long and 25 cm wide. 

1. Introduction Fonio (Digitaria exilis), also known as acha, hungry millets, and fundi in various regions, is a minor and underutilized millet with exceptionally small size (H. Sartelet et al., 1996; Bello et al., 2020). This ancient crop native to West Africa is considered one of the oldest cultivated millets for ensuring food security. Figure 1 illustrates the components and structure of fonio millets. In recent times, fonio millet has garnered increased attention due to its remarkable nutritional and functional properties (Zhu, 2020). Being gluten-free, it is rich in nutrients such as carbohydrates, fat, fiber, vitamins, and minerals (Fe, Cl, K, Mg) as well as essential sulphur-containing amino acids like methionine and cysteine, which also possess phenolic properties (Barikmo et al., 2004; Zhu, 2020).

Abstract

We are very fortunate to be born in a nation which is blessed with awesome decent variety of natural products, fruits, vegetables, cereals, pulses and so forth. The population of India expanded consistentlythat cause a genuine sustenance and shelter problem. The supply of food is not adequate to fulfill the demand of the consumers. This shortage of food is the root for adulteration of foodstuffs by the traders. Food adulteration is a procedure in which the nature of sustenance is brought down either by the addition of inferior quality material or by extraction of valuable ingredient. An adulterant is a chemical substance which should not be contained within other substances (food, beverages) for legal or other reasons. The addition of adulterants is called adulteration. Food is adulterated to increase the quantity and make more profit. The food is sucked of its nutrients and the place where the food is grown is often contaminated. For instance: milkis mixed with water. Vanaspati is utilized as an adulterant for ghee. Adulteration of food is unsafe as it may be toxic and causes serious health hazards to the consumer. To evade this issue government has passed an act which is known as preservation of Food Adulteration Act. It covers security from risks involved due to contamination of poisonous elements. Instead of government efforts the informed and aware consumers will have the capacity to dispense with this issue. So, here in the chapter adulterants their types, effect on human health, laws and control measurement were reviewed and discussed.

1. INTRODUCTION

It is hard to conceive which came first on earth, human being or food. If the human was born first, he or she needed food immediately to survive. Thereafter, the human beings continued to need food and continued to eat food throughout his or her life. Hence, the relationship between human being and food is permanent and the requirement of food for the human being to be alive is everlasting. Further, sources of food may survive in nature without human intervention but human being can not remain alive without food. This clearly signifies the permanent bondage of human being and food which is inseparable under any circumstances. ‘Thus, should we state that every human being necessarily needs food and should have right to food as soon as born.

In order to further strengthen this view, the governance which rules human beings should also be protective and enact laws to ensure food to each human being born in respective countries.

2. BACKGROUND

•   “Hunger is exclusion”, wrote de Castro (1963) a Brazilian anti-hunger advocate. “Exclusion from the land, from jobs, wages, income, life and citizenship. When a person gets to the point of not having anything to eat, it is because all the rest has been denied. This is a modern form of exile. It is death in life”.

•   Simply by being born, everyone has the right to food. A person doesn’t have to do anything to “deserve” it; the right to food is a birthright. But this does not entitle a person to sit back and ask for free food. People are responsible for doing all they can to realize their own right to food. Governments that are parties to the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights are responsible for ensuring that all those living within their borders have the means to do so, (FAO, 2007).

•   Broadly speaking, governments should create peaceful, stable, free and prosperous environments in which people can feed themselves in dignity. Even without a legal obligation to do so, countries have a moral obligation to ensure freedom from hunger (FAO, 2007).

SYNOPSIS

Food is an essential element without which human being cannot survive. We need it for our maintenance and growth everyday and through the longevity of our life. As we understand food, it is a bunch of essential elements which is essentially needed for the engine of human body to run non-stop. The understanding of food is much required by masses who consume it every day. The present paper attempts to describe the knowledge on food, feeling on food by consumers, prevailing food, hunger and malnutrition, healthy food and studies required on consumable foods.

Introduction
Food Chains
Food chains are made up of organisms that eat and are devoured by one another as a means of transferring energy from the source in plants. “The transfer of energy from plants through a series of organisms with repeated eating and being eaten” is one definition of it.
A food chain is the movement of energy from producers at one trophic level to consumers at the next. In a food chain, energy moves only in one direction. An understanding of food chains can provide important insights into how ecosystems work.
• Grazing food chain
Grazing food chains and detritus food chains are the two main categories of food chains.
The food chain known as grazing begins with living green plants, moves through grazing herbivores, and ends with carnivores. Such a food chain places an immediate demand on ecosystems for solar radiation. From an energy perspective, these chains are very significant.

Introduction

The right to food is the most fundamental among the human rights. Food production, distribution and consumption is an important issue for developing countries. The dimensions of food problem in Asia have been changing since the food crisis of sixties and seventies. The lesson of those years is well-learnt, and attaining self-reliance in food came to be recognized as a key goal of development. Most of the Asian countries have been suffering with many problems such as slow growth rate in cereal production, large share of agriculture in the gross domestic product, weak infrastructure, low purchasing power and massive rural poverty which had made the South Asia region as a whole food deficit (Plumb, 1998).The possibility of impending world food crisis looms largely from increasing pressure on national agricultural sector to meet the demands triggered by rising population, growth in people’s income and change in expenditure and consumption pattern (Ghosh, 2001).

SYNOPSIS

India has been conspicuous as one of the most malnourished nations, as every child out of two is malnourished. Moreover, the levels of under nourishment is substantially high among tribal communities. The present investigation has been made to examine the levels of food insecurity at the micro level in four regions identified in the tribal dominated areas of Maharashtra on the basis of macro level indicators. A comparison of food insecurity between the two communities reveals a high incidence of food insecurity among the tribal as compared to that of non-tribal. The nutritional status of tribal children is much lower than that of their non-tribal counterparts.

Developing a new food product involves multiple stages, from ideation to commercialization. Here's a detailed guide to the process:

1. Idea Generation

a. Brainstorming: Generate innovative ideas based on consumer trends, market gaps, and technological advancements.

b. Consumer Feedback: Use surveys, focus groups, and social media to gather consumer preferences and demands.

c. Competitive Analysis: Study existing products in the market to identify opportunities for differentiation.

2. Concept Development

a. Concept Screening: Evaluate initial ideas for feasibility, potential market success, and alignment with company goals.

b. Market Research: Conduct detailed market research to understand target demographics, market size, and potential demand.

Abstract
Every nation needs an effective food legislation and food control service to promote a safe, honestly presented food supply, and to protect consumers from contaminated, adulterated, and spoiled foods. The principles to be included in food safety and legislations are primarily inspection, enforcement, biological and chemical contaminants, packaging and labelling, and food trade in local and overseas market. Harmonization of Food Law on the international level is a worldwide trend from the late twentieth century. In India AGMARK and FSSAI are sole regulatory authority for food production and marketing. International laws and regulations play a vital role in trade and commerce. International regulatory bodies include CODEX, EU, HALAL, USFDA, FAO and WTO. This chapter deals with international and national food safety regulation and legislations with regulatory framework in India and implications on international trade.
Keywords: Food Safety, Regulations, Trade, Certification, Legislation, Food Security.

Introduction

The importance of food security and its management world over has been recognized long back. The World Food Summit in 1974, called in response to the persistent and widespread under-nutrition and the future role of agriculture, stressed upon establishment of committee to review and recommend location specific action plan in sensitive areas. Asserting that every man, woman and child has the inalienable right to be free from hunger and malnutrition in order to develop their physical and mental faculties, an international undertaking on world food security was set up in which member nations committed to maintain food stocks to ensure routine and emergency food supplies (in case of crop failure, natural disaster, etc.). Monitoring the implementation of such undertaking has since then become the responsibility of the Committee on World Food Security.

Introduction

Food security means access by all people at all times to enough food for an active healthy life (Reuntlinger, 1985; World bank, 1986; FAO, 1989). But now-a-days, food security is used differently at national, regional and household level. At regional and national levels, it is related to regional and national balances between availability and need whereas at household level, it is related with food production resources, income available for purchases and assistance sufficient to meet the aggregate needs of all household members.

Availability of food alone may not guarantee access due to poor distribution or lack of purchasing power as co-existence of aggregate food self sufficiency and widespread malnutrition and hunger do exist. As per Chen and Kates, 1994, food security includes combination of criteria as:

17.1. Fruit Products Order (FPO), 1995

Promulgated under Section 3 of Essential Commodities Act, 1955.

For regulating sanitary and hygienic conditions in manufacture of fruit, vegetable products.

Mandatory for all manufacturers of fruit, vegetable products to obtain a license under this order.

Food security, defined as the availability, access, and utilization of sufficient, safe, and nutritious food for all people at all times, is a critical global challenge. This article examines the multifaceted issues contributing to food insecurity, including population growth, climate change, economic instability, and geopolitical conflicts. It explores the impact of these factors on food production, distribution, and access, highlighting the interconnectedness of global systems. Furthermore, the article discusses various solutions and strategies to enhance food security, such as sustainable agricultural practices, technological innovations, policy reforms, and international cooperation. Emphasizing a holistic and integrated approach, the article argues that addressing food security requires coordinated efforts across sectors and scales, from local communities to global networks. By fostering resilience, equity, and sustainability in food systems, we can move towards a future where everyone has access to the nourishment they need to lead healthy and productive lives.

SYNOPSIS

There have been conflicting practices, recommendations regarding a healthy diet in human beings. Unscientific food habits are limitation to good health and active life. Because of various social, cultural, religious and economic factors human beings in the same climatic conditions and living situations, have been practicing different food habits leading to many health problems. What to eat, how much to eat and when to eat are not clear with the masses. This paper attempts to throw light on these aspects.

Introduction

Foraminifera or forams for short are the most abundant, diverse and widely distributed Protists in marine realm. They are found in all marine environments, from the inter-tidal to the deepest ocean trenches, and from the tropics to the poles (Todo et al., 2005). In some places, foraminifera are so abundant that the sediment on the bottom is mostly made up of their shells. For example, tourists from all over the world get attracted to the pink sands of Bermuda. These sands get their colour from the shells of Homotrema rubrum which has pink to red-colored shells. Living representatives of foraminifera provide ecological data and their mineralized tests are a geochemical record of palaeoclimatic conditions.

Hydrometeorology forecasting is limited to forecasting of occurrence of rainfall to a greater extent. Although several countries all over the world have developed and established hydrometorological forecasting with focus on occurrence of floods and droughts, still there is very limited success. Floods are associated with occurrence of continuous heavy rainfall due to movement of low-pressure systems like cyclones and depression overflow into rivers, reservoirs and breaching of bunds. In countries like India, the floods occur on the average in 70 lakh hectors of area and the economic loss due to floods and expenditure on relief operations mounting year after year besides loss of life. Foods occur at all of a sudden leaving little time for planning mitigation or rescue operation. Flood forecasting in based on impact assessment of heavy rainfall assessments to identify the exact area that is likely to be affected. It requires more intensive research. Forecasting of droughts is still an area of serious concern. There is need to strengthen regional capabilities to develop forecasting techniques for occurrence of flood and droughts through proper analysis of historical data in conjunction with meteorological forecasts and remote sensing data. Though flood alerts are issued, the identification of exact area and the extent to which flood impacts are not very clear most of the times heavy rainfall warnings are not just sufficient until and unless the vulnerable areas can be clearly specified. The medium range forecasting will be extremely useful for issuing flood alerts.
14.1. Forecasting Droughts
Long range forecasting of seasonal rainfall can indicate the possibility of receiving excess or deficit rainfall over larger regions. In India, there is considerable progress in development of long range forecast of Southwest monsoon rainfall. This forecast also indicating the regions which may get surplus or deficit rainfall and for indifferent parts of a given region as well. However, there is serious dearth of local expertise to further analyse and interpret the long-range forecast for a given area on the basis of local climate data. The advantages of reliable long-range forecast are still unexpected. Almost one fifth of the area in India gets affected by draught most of the years. The drought affects are more severe in arid and semi arid regions. Prediction of occurrence of drought and its intensity, period of occurrence and the areas to be affected by drought is very important. During recent years, there is considerable increase in the occurrence of droughts due to climate change which is attributed mainly to atmospheric pollution. The physics of the pollution is consistent and not the policies support in handling hydrometerological disasters. There are instances where in flood and droughts occurred in the same

Forest microclimate is the climate within a forest in contrast to a nearby open area created by a clearing or pasture. A robust observation is that less sunlight reaches the ground in a forest than in open areas, but this depends on the size of the clearing, the height of trees surrounding the clearing, and the location in the clearing (relative to the edge) where measurements are obtained. Daytime temperature is generally lower in forest than in open areas, with greatest differences during the growing season; but this, too, is subject to edge effects and whether the canopy is sparse or dense. Wind near the ground is less than in exposed areas or above the canopy. Another point is that there are various microclimates within a forest canopy. The environment of the forest overstory differs from that of the understory, and this has important consequences for species conservation and protection from climate change. The forest microclimate has important implications for habitat and biodiversity conservation and may act to buffer forest understory organisms from the severity of climate change. Forest microclimates differ not only in contrast with open land, but also vertically with position in the canopy (Fig. 8.1).

13.1. Forms of business organisations

Factors to be given weightage for choice of a suitable form of organization

Type of business - service, trade, manufacturing.

Selection of industry and area of operation.

Scope of operations, volume of business and market size, including its expected growth potential.

Amount of capital funds required – initial capital, working capital.

A single active ingredient often is sold in several different kinds of formulations as follows:

(a) Dry Formulations
1. Granule (G)

Granule is, a ready-to-use, dry mixture of a small amount of active ingredient with inert carriers. Most are made by applying a liquid formulation of the active ingredient to coarse particles (granules) of some porous material such as clay, sand or plant material. Granule particles are much larger than dust particles; will pass through a 4-mesh sieve but not through an 80-mesh sieve (the number of wires per inch). The herbicide is absorbed into the granule, or coats the outside of it, or both. Inert ingredients may be added to make the formulation handle well. The amount of active ingredient usually ranges from 1 to 15 percent.

Major advantage of chemical herbicides over other methods of weed control is its ease of application, which saves the cost of labour for the farmer. Effectiveness of herbicide depends on how long it remains in active form in the plant /soil. The form in which any herbicide is available in the market is known as herbicide formulation. The technical active ingredient (ai.) of the herbicide is converted to a formulations so as to improve easiness of handling, retention on leaf surface, absorption and movement in the plant. Herbicides are available in different formulations.

Introduction
Technology transfer and capacity building are critical to the advancement of agriculture, particularly in ensuring that research findings and innovations reach stakeholders efficiently. The Directorate of Extension (DoE) at Kerala Agricultural University (KAU) is a key player in this process, liaising with state development departments to drive technology dissemination in the agriculture and allied sectors. The DoE collaborates closely with development departments of agri and allied areas in the State, acting as a vital link to ensure that agricultural advancements reach the grassroots level. The Directorate also integrates institutional mechanisms to support this technology transfer. Through a network of Krishi Vigyan Kendras (KVKs) and several institutional mechanisms, the Directorate integrates new agricultural technologies into mainstream practices, focusing on both skill development and sustainable development strategies. It conducts workshops, seminars, and training programs focused on enhancing the skills of extension workers, farmers, and other stakeholders. The focus is not just on disseminating new technologies but also on building long-term capacity through skill development. This ensures that the stakeholders are well-equipped to implement the innovations in a way that promotes efficiency, productivity, and sustainability. In essence, the DoE at KAU is a driving force in modernizing agriculture in Kerala. Through its structured efforts in technology transfer, skill enhancement, and the promotion of sustainable practices, it enables the agricultural sector to keep pace with scientific advancements while ensuring that the benefits are accessible and applicable at the field level.
Initiatives / Interventions of DoE, KAU
The Directorate of Extension is crucial in bridging the gap between agricultural research and field-level application through various innovative initiatives. Key interventions include the popularization of agricultural technologies, primarily through farm-based production programs, Block Level Agricultural Knowledge Centres (BLAKC), and the Mukhamukham (face-to-face) Agro Clinic. The Directorate also focuses on capacity-building programs, entrepreneurship development, and ICT-enabled technology dissemination. Additionally, the Directorate supports vulnerable sections of society, develops Farmer Producer Organizations (FPOs), and implements state-funded development projects, contributing to the holistic growth of Kerala’s agricultural sector.

Introduction 
In order to ensure that future generations can prosper, sustainable development is an all-encompassing strategy that aims to strike a balance between social equity, environmental protection, and economic growth. The inclusion of genderresponsive policies is one of this agenda’s most important but often ignored components. Encouraging inclusive and sustainable development outcomes requires acknowledging and addressing the unique needs and contributions of different genders. Empowering women and other marginalized genders have positive effects on resilience, economic productivity, and environmental stewardship that go beyond local communities. Policies that are gender responsive aim to address systemic disparities by advancing equal opportunities and involvement in decision-making. These policies seek to empower marginalized groups while also utilizing their distinct viewpoints and skills to tackle urgent global issues. Women are important in agriculture and natural resource management, for example, so their input is essential in developing environmental policies that work. Gender considerations can be effectively integrated into development frameworks to produce more comprehensive solutions that lead to sustainable outcomes. In addition, promoting gender parity is not just a question of justice but also a critical component of sustainable development. Greater gender parity is associated with faster economic growth and better social outcomes in nations, according to a wealth of research. Entire communities gain when women have access to economic opportunities, healthcare, and education. In order to achieve sustainable development goals and make sure that no one is left behind, creating gender-responsive policies is therefore not just an ethical duty but also a practical necessity. In conclusion, examining the relationship between gender and sustainable development can help us better understand the many issues our world is currently facing. Gender-responsive policies should be given top priority so that we can help everyone reach their full potential and encourage creativity and resilience. This strategy opens the door for a more sustainable and inclusive future by promoting equitable development and bolstering our group’s capacity to handle social, economic, and environmental issues.