eChapters

The demand for lightweight, high-performance, and environmentally responsible materials is particularly strong in automotive, aerospace, and defence applications. This chapter examines biomass-derived green nanocomposites as potential materials for lightweight systems and energy-storage-related applications. It discusses material fundamentals, design requirements, sector-specific performance expectations, material systems, and performance benchmarks. Green processing and circular economy integration are considered alongside current technological challenges and strategic research gaps. Biomass-derived resources provide opportunities to reduce dependence on non-renewable feedstocks while developing functional composite materials. The chapter emphasizes the need to balance lightweight design, mechanical and functional performance, manufacturing feasibility, sustainability, and end-of-life considerations for demanding engineering applications.

2.1. Radio

A popular communication medium

2.1.1. Historic features

In India, Madras Presidency Club pioneered radio broadcasting in 1924.

Due to financial difficulties, gave it up in 1927.

In 1927, businessmen in Bombay started Indian broadcasting Company with stations at Bombay and Calcutta.

But, failed in 1930.

The hot water soluble method is the most common method to estimate available B content in soil

Reagents

1. Azomethine-H: Dissolve 0.45 g azomethine-H and 1.0 g L-ascorbic acid in about 100 ml de-ionized or redistilled water. If solution is not clear, it should be heated gently on water bath at about 30ºC till it dissolves. A fresh solution should be prepared every week and kept in a refrigerator.
2. Buffer solution: Dissolve 250 g ammonium acetate in 500 ml de-ionized or redistilled water. Adjust the pH to about 5.5 by slowly adding approximately 100 ml glacial acetic acid, with constant stirring.
3. EDTA reagent (0.025 M): Dissolve 9.3 g EDTA in de-ionized or redistilled water and makes the volume up to 1 litre.
4. Standard Boron solution: Dissolve 0.571 g boric acid (H₃BO₃) AR grade in a small volume of deionized water and make volume to 1000 ml to obtain a stock solution of 100 mg B/L.

In this method, plant available sulphur (S) is extracted with 0.15% CaCl₂ and the soluble sulphate is estimated on a colorimeter.

Abstract

A profile study of organic pigeonpea growers was conducted during 2007-08 in Gulbarga district of Karnataka state. Two taluks namely, Gulbarga and Jewargi were selected based on highest area under organic pigeonpea cultivation. One hundred twenty respondents were selected with simple random sampling procedure, to know (1) the practices followed by farmers in organic pigeonpea cultivation and (2) the forward linkage activities followed by organic pigeonpea growers. The study revealed that majority of respondents (63.33 %) had medium level knowledge about organic pigeonpea farming practices, with regard to individual organic farming practices, majority of respondents had knowledge about the practices like recommended seed rate (81.60%), recommended sowing time (98.33 %), application of FYM (100%), crop rotation (96.67%), pheromone traps (98.33%), NPV (100%) and NSKE (100%). With regard to post harvest operations, cent percent of respondents graded the produce manually and jute bags used to store the produce, whereas, 71.67% of the respondents sold later when price was suitable in regulated market (90.00%) through commission agents (77.50%) and got price information by personnel visit/phone call to regulated market (81.67%) and others who visited the market (68.33%). But no farmer certified the produce and sold at premium price. With regards to personal characteristics, majority of respondents (31.62 %) were illiterate, 59.17 per cent were had joint family, 61.17 per cent were having low farming experience, 60.83 per cent of respondents were big land holders and 69.17 per cent of respondents possessed medium level of scientific orientation.

The accumulation of nitrogen under non-leguminous and cereal cropping systems seem to be generally universal at least in the tropics. Free-living heterotrophic nitrogen fixing bacteria are very widely distributed taxonomically, geographically and ecologically. But only a few genera and species are known to possess the potential for high amount of nitrogen fixation. Azospirillum has shown high nitrogen fixation attributes. The association of Spirillum lipoperum (Azospirillum brasilense) and Digitaria decumbens was reported by Dobereiner and Day (1974).

I. Spirillum

The description of members of genus Spirillum was available as early as 1670s by Leeuwenhoek (Dobell 1960 and Muller 1773). But the genus Spirillurn was created in 1832 by distinguishing it from phototrophic spirilla which were placed in a separate genus Thiospirillum (Ehrenberg, 1838). The subsequent developments of the taxonomy of the chemo- heterotrophic spirilla which generated knowledge of their characteristics, were extensively reviewed by Giesberger (1936) and Williams (1959 a, b).

Azospirillum is a spiral-shaped nitrogen fixing bacterium. It also produces hormones and vitamins. Important species are Azospirillum brasilense and Azospirillum lipoferum. It is widely distributed in soils and grass roots.The genus Azospirillum belongs to family Spirillaceae with four commonly available species viz. A. brasilence, A. lipoferum, A. amazonense and A. halopraeferens or A. seropedicae (Fig. 8.1).

Size – Shapes - Arrangements – Morphology

Bacteria are very small, most being approximately 0.5 to 1.0 mm diameter. Smallest bacteria are Mycoplasmas, as small as 0.2 micrometers (almost as small as largest poxviruses).

Accepted wisdom is that bacteria are smaller than eukaryotes. But certain cyanobacteria are quite large; Oscillatoria cells are 7 micrometers diameter, size of red blood cells. And certain eukaryotes (e.g. Nanochlorum eukaryotum) are very small, only 1 to 2 micrometers, but true eukaryotes (nucleus, chloroplast, mitochondrion are present). So size difference is, like many generalizations, only a useful yardstick, not an absolute truth.

Epulopiscium fishelsoni, discovered in 1985 in intestinal tract of sturgeonfish, is an enormous, cigar-shaped cell, as large as 80 x 600 micrometers (that’s 0.6 mm, large enough to be seen by the naked eye). Amazingly, this cell is prokaryotic! Initial evidence by EM was hard to believe, but confirmed rRNA comparisons with other organisms, a cousin of Gram-positive Clostridium genus.

The relative size of the bacteria are as follows :

10.1 Transformation of E. coli by electroporation Principle

Preparation of electro-competent bacteria is considerably easier than preparing cells for transformation by chemical methods. Bacteria are simply grown to mid –log phase, chilled, centrifuged, washed extensively with ice cold buffer containing 10% glycerol. DNA may be introduced immediately into the bacteria by exposing them to a short high voltage electrical discharge. Alternatively, the cell suspension may be snap frozen and stored at-70^oC for 6 months before electroporation, without loss of transforming efficiency.

Since E.coli cells are small, they require very high strengths (12.5- 15KV cm^-1) for electroporation as compared to those used to introduce DNA into eukaryotic cells. Electroporation is temperature dependent and is best carried out at 0-4°C.

The highest efficiency of transformation is obtained when the concentration of input DNA is high (1-10 μg/ml) and when the length and intensity of the electrical pulse are such that only 30-50% of the cells survive in the procedure. Under these conditions, as many as 80% of the surviving cells may be transformed. Higher frequencies of transformation (colonies/ molecules input DNA) are obtained when the DNA concentration is low (?10pg/ml).

The method outlined in this protocol is followed with most strains of E.coli and with plasmids <15kb in size. However, substantial variation in the efficiency of transformation between the strains of E. coli. has been reported. As in case with chemical transformation, linear plasmid DNAs introduced into E.coli by a pulsed electrical discharge transform very efficiently from 10 to 1000 fold but less efficiently than the corresponding closed circular DNA – perhaps because the exposed terminal of linear DNA are susceptible to attack by intracellular nucleases.

Balanced crop nutrition is a most reaJized critical factor in allowing crops to give their full yield potential. The application of macro and micronutrients through manures and fertilizers to achieve this balance is an integral practice in modern crop production system. Macro and microelements have long been recognized as being associated with changes in the level of many diseases and yield and /or quality of crops. Three major elements N, P, and K are the most studied nutrients which chiefly affect relative resistance of crop plants to various diseases. Others macro/micro/beneficial nutrients including Ca, Mg, S, Mn,Te, Zn, Mo, Si, Bo and Cu have shown varying degrees of disease suppression/induction on many crop species under various environmental conditions. Crop nutrition influence plant health through: i. affecting the growth, reproduction, virulence, and survival of pathogens; ii. resistance and tolerance, predisposition and escape in the host crop; and iii. root exudates and microbial interactions facilitatingbiological control. Balanced crop nutrition can protect crops from pathogens by: i. avoiding plant stress, which may allow crops to better withstand the attack of pathogens and ii. manipulating nutrients to the advantage of crops and disadvantage of the pathogen. The modern intensive agriculture which mainly relies on chemical inputs (fertilizers and pesticides) and fertilizer responsive HYVs (high yielding varieties) has led the self sufficiency in food production in India and several other countries of the world. But, the indiscriminate and imbalance use of chemical fertilizers along with exhaustive cropping initiated several second generation problems including widespread micronutrient deficiencies and increased attack of several insect-pests and pathogenic diseases. The excessive use of nitrogen and no or reduced application of phosphorus, potash and other micronutrients is creating conducive conditions for several crop pathogens and their insect vectors. This situation frequently results in serious crop losses during favourable environmental conditions for disease development. The specific role of macro and micronutrients in maintaining crop health, effect of their dose and form of application on suppression /induction of various diseases and interaction with other soil/ environmental factor (s) will be discussed in following sections.

Introduction

Agricultural lands in India have mostly low native soil fertility. On these soils there must be a regular application of nutrient inputs through chemical fertilizers and/or organic manures for a successful and sustained crop production to replenish soil nutrient reserves depleted by crop removal and other losses. It is essential to recognize that even in agricultural production systems with relatively low productivity level, the quantity of nutrients available for recycling through plant and animal residues is not enough to compensate the amount being removed by crops. Under these circumstances mineral fertilizers play a key role in those areas having low fertile soils by increasing agricultural production to meet out growing food demand. Chemical fertilizers are the major contributors as source of plant nutrients to enhance crop production and also to maintain soil productivity.

Industrial revolution took place in England during the period of 1760-1830. Accordingly, the production prior to demand was introduced. Many countries all over the world adopted industrial policies favouring industrial sector to achieve the fast development of the nation. Government of India also contributed its efforts in the same direction and issued the industrial policy of 1948, 1956, 1977 and so on making several financial and non financial facilities available to have substantial growth and development of industries in particular and nation in general.

Under the name of globalization and making the economy internationally competent, India took a revolutionary decision to follow new industrial policy 1991 opening the doors for investment from foreign countries and private sector even. In addition to this economic reforms have been adopted and advocated for the sake of national development. Three ‘D’ programme consisting of devaluation, decontrol and disinvestment, were also put on the national agenda, to achieve the set targets.

4.1 Introduction

Baling biomass is a crucial technique in efficiently managing and utilizing agricultural crop residue. This chapter explores the process of baling, which involves compacting biomass materials into standardized bundles for easier handling, storage, and transportation. From agricultural residues to forestry waste, the chapter delves into various types of biomass suitable for baling, the equipment used, and the benefits of this technique. It also discusses the environmental impact, economic considerations, and emerging trends in baling methods. Through in-depth analysis and practical insights, this chapter offers a comprehensive understanding of how baling contributes to sustainable biomass management and resource optimization.

Barley is believed to be originated from Asia and Ethiopia. Its Sanskrit name ‘Yava’ is mentioned in ‘Veda’ and use of barley in religious ceremonies has been described which shows that barley has been grown in India since ancient times. It is widely believed that the ‘Near-East region’ is the probable place of origin of barley around 8000 BC (Harlan, 1968). There are two theories regarding the origin of barley. 

1. Introduction Millets are the oldest crops known to mankind. They are mostly cultivated for human consumption however; some are also used as animal fodder. Barnyard millet Echinochloa frumentacea is a multi-purpose crop belonging to the kingdom plantae, order-poales, family-poaceae, subfamily-panicoideae, genus-Echinochloa & species-E. frumentacea. It was domesticated about 4,000 years ago with two main species: Echinochloa esculenta (Japanese barnyard millet) and Echinochloa frumentacea (Indian barnyard millet). The former species is mainly grown in Japan, Korea, and northeastern China, while the latter is grown in Pakistan, India, and Nepal. In India, barnyard millet is grown in the Himalayan region from the north to the Deccan plateau in the south and is popularly known as jhangora or sawan millet.

1. 1 Introduction, Origin and Taxonomy Barnyard millet (Echinochloa species) is one of the oldest domesticated small millet crops which can be grown in both warm and temperate regions of the world and it is widely cultivated in Asia. It is distributed predominantly in the Indian subcontinent, China, Japan, and Korea and also to some extent in Africa and United States. In India, this crop is mainly grown in Maharashtra, Orissa, Tamil Nadu, Madhya Pradesh, Bihar, Punjab, Gujarat and the hills of Uttarakhand (Kumar et al., 2000). It ranks fourth in terms of production amongst the small millets. Indian Barnyard millet (Echinochloa frumentacea) and Japanese Barnyard millet (Echinochloa esculenta) are the two important species of the barnyard millet. Barnyard millet is majorly grown for human consumption, though it is also grown for livestock feed and fodder (Sood et al., 2015).

22.1 Introduction

Nanotechnology has proved to have infinite potential in increasing the quality of life of the human population. There is however, a growing realization regarding the potential health and safety risks of associated with development, production and application of these nanoparticles. Nanoscale particles are produced from a variety of different processes. Nanoparticles are the end product of a wide variety of physical, chemical and biological processes, some of which are novel and radically different, others of which are quite commonplace. Nanometer sized particles are also found in the atmosphere where they originate from combustion sources (traffic, forest fires), volcanic activity, and from atmospheric gas to particle conversion processes such as photochemically driven nucleation. A large quantity of nanoscale particles are also produced during the various human activities, Welding can generate large quantities of nanoparticles usually in the form of a well defined plume of aggregated nanoparticles.