eChapters

Bioconversion refers to the recycling and reprocessing of organic waste materials using the system of biological decomposition or biodegradation into value added products. Composting is one way of conversion of organic waste into manures. It is defined as a method of solid waste management whereby the organic component of the solid waste stream is biologically decomposed under controlled conditions to a state in which it can be handled, stored or applied to the land without adversely affecting the environment.

Composting provides a partial solution to an issue of great concern in many communities. All around the world, landfills are filling up, garbage incineration is becoming increasingly unpopular, and other waste disposal options are becoming ever harder to find. Composting provides a way not only of reducing the amount of waste that needs to be disposed of, but also of converting it into a product that is useful for agriculture. Composting reduces waste, makes us less dependent on landfills, and decreases greenhouse gas emissions. Composting recycles essential nutrients back into the soil and promotes a prolific soil ecosystem.

Abstract

With increasing population and subsequent human requirements; the generation of municipal solid waste (MSW) has increased all over the world. In India, the safe disposal of the municipal solid waste still remaines a problem for the authorities concerned. Depending upon the nature and type of the MSW, there are physical and chemical methods for the disposal of the waste, but these methods have their own limitations. Those limitations may be overcome by biological methods. Higher number of microorganisms are present in MSW which may either be pathogenic or nonpathogenic. These microorganisms may play a vital role in bioconversion of MSW into compost. The compost thus produced is useful in increasing soil fertility and reducing the concentration of the waste.

Introduction

More than a third is covered by drylands in the terrestrial land surface, which have a harsh and vulnerable natural condition (Maier et al., 2014). Due to insufficient water availability, dry areas have a scant population of vascular plants, as well as poor availability of the nutrient turnover with poor availability of the resources as a result of severe temperatures (Adeel, 2008). Biological soil crusts or Biocrusts commonly protects the soil surface in dry environments and it is considered “ecosystem engineers” of arid and semiarid areas, as well as signs of ecosystem health (Briggs and Morgan, 2011; Bowker et al., 2008). They are connected in dryland ecosystem restoration level or degradation (Assouline et al., 2015). When compared to chemical or physical crusts, biocrust is the largest word that explicitly implies that these are the crusts which are dependent on the living organisms’ activity.

Pesticides are the chemical substances that kill pests and herbicides are the chemicals that kill weeds. In the context of soil, pests are fungi, bacteria, insects, worms, and nematodes etc. that cause damage to field crops. Thus, in broad sense pesticides are insecticides, fungicides, bactericides, herbicides and nematicides that are used to control or inhibit plant diseases and insect pests. Although wide-scale application of pesticides and herbicides is an essential part of augmenting crop yields; excessive use of these chemicals leads to the microbial imbalance, environmental pollution and health hazards. An ideal pesticide should have the ability to destroy target pest quickly and should be able to degrade nontoxic substances as quickly as possible.

The ultimate “sink” of the pesticides applied in agriculture is soil. Soil being the storehouse of multitudes of microbes, in quantity and quality, receives the chemicals in various forms and acts as a scavenger of harmful substances. The efficiency and the competence to handle the chemicals vary with the soil and its physical, chemical and biological characteristics.

Abstract

Various cropping systems and ecologies illustrate the positive use of chemicals both as fertilizers and pesticides and organic/biological sources within the frame work of Integrated Plant Nutrition and Plant Protection System (IPPS). While considering the organic/biological sources, green manures seem to be the best alternative that may largely suffice to the organic matter requirements of the soil under crop cultivation. Green manuring can be defined as a practice of ploughing or turning into the soil undecomposed green plant tissues for the purpose of improving physical structure as well as fertility of the soil. “Green manure” refers to fresh plant matter, which is added to the soil largely for supplying the nutrients contained in its biomass. The agricultural practices consisting of growing and ploughing under a green crop or addition of a green organic matter in the form of leaves and other succulent parts from outside to improve soil productivity is known as green manuring. In this review, advantages of green manuring, decomposition of green manure,   process of decomposition, factors affecting decomposition and effects of green manuring have been discussed in detail.

8.1 Introduction

Rising petroleum prices, increasing threat to the environment from exhaust emissions and global warming have generated an intense international interest in developing alternative non-petroleum fuels for engines. The use of vegetable oil in internal combustion engines is not a recent innovation. Rudolf Diesel (18581913), creator of the diesel cycle engines, used peanut vegetable oil to demonstrate its invention in Paris in 1900. In 1912, Diesel said, “The use of vegetable oils as engine fuel may seem negligible today. Nevertheless, such oils may become, in the passing years, as important as oil and coal tar presently.” Nowadays, it is known that oil is a finite resource and that its price tends to increase exponentially, as its reserves have being decreasing¹.

India ranks sixth in the world in total energy consumption and needs to accelerate the development of the sector to meet its growth aspirations. The country, though rich in coal and abundantly endowed with renewable energy in the form of solar, wind, hydro and bio-energy has very small hydrocarbon reserves (0.4 % of the world’s reserve). India, like many other developing countries, is a net importer of energy, more than 25 percent of primary energy needs being met through imports mainly in the form of crude oil and natural gas. The rising oil import bill has been the focus of serious concerns due to the pressure it has placed on scarce foreign exchange resources and is also largely responsible for energy supply shortages. The sub-optimal consumption of commercial energy adversely affects the productive sectors, which in turn hampers economic growth².

7.1 Introduction

A biodiesel fuel is an environmentally friendly, renewable, biodegradable fuel that is produced at domestic facilities from vegetable oils, animal fats, or recycled grease from restaurants. In accordance with the Renewable Fuel Standard, biodiesel meets the requirements for biomass-based diesel as well as the requirements for advanced biofuels as a whole. Biodiesel is distinct from renewable diesel, also known as “green diesel.” In its pure, unblended form, biodiesel is also known as B100 or neat biodiesel. Biodiesel is used to fuel compression-ignition engines in the same way as petroleum diesel. Alternatively, biodiesel is a liquid biofuel that can be used in diesel engines alone or blended with diesel oil. The fuel is obtained through the chemical conversion of vegetable oils or animal fats combined with alcohol.

11.1 Biodiesel Chemistry

Biodiesel is a mixture of methyl esters of long chain fatty acids like lauric, palmitic, stearic, oleic and so on. It is produced by the transesterification of animal fats and vegetable oils – all of which belong to a group of organic esters called triglycerides. Typical examples are rape/canola oil, soyabean oil, sunflower oil, palm oil and its derivatives, etc. from vegetable sources, beef and sheep tallow and poultry oil from animal sources and also from used cooking oil. The chemistry is basically the same irrespective of the feedstock. The chemistry of biodiesel is given in Fig. 11.1.

Abstract

Irrigation tanks (Traditional water harvesting structures) are our heritage handed over to us by our ancestors and are the lifelines of villages. Tanks are small irrigation structures predominantly serve small and marginal farming communities to sustain the agriculture production by supplementing the monsoon rains. There will be festivities in the villages if its irrigation tanks get filled. A proper maintenance of the tanks will prevent famine, starvation and unemployment and bring in prosperity. In most of the Southern states in India, the major threats to tanks are mainly from the encroachers, inefficiency in the functioning of tank system and improper use by the government itself. Tank irrigation in Andhra Pradesh has played a vital role in the development of its agricultural economy. There are around 79,000 small and minor irrigation tanks providing water for irrigation and domestic use, supporting grazing land, fuel wood growth and ground water recharge. Many of these tanks are hydrologically linked in chains (called tank cascades) that cut across administrative boundaries. With deteriorating tank systems, marginal and small farmers are increasingly at the mercy of monsoon and are forced into a cycle of deprivation and debt. These ancient irrigation systems still function as a crucial element in supplying water for agriculture, and they constitute one of the richest sources of wetland biodiversity in the country. A tank system in a cascade has a small reservoir catchment, the reservoir, a strip of trees downstream of the reservoir that act as wind-breaking barrier, paddy fields, and the village. The village tanks play significant role in food production sector and provide employment in the rural sector. In addition to providing irrigation water, the tanks made the micro-climate pleasant and cool, provided a rich biodiversity and agro-biodiversity

The word biodiversity refers to the variety of living organisms (flora and fauna). Biodiversity or Biological diversity is defined as the variability among all living organisms from all sources, including terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems and ecological complexes of which they are part. Wilson, 1988 defined ‘Biological diversity’ or ‘biodiversity’ as that part of nature which includes the differences in genes among the individuals of a species, the variety and richness of all the plant and animal species at different scales in space i.e. local, regional, country wise and global, andvarious types of ecosystems- both terrestrial and aquatic-within a defined area.

The diversity of agro-ecosystems

Biological diversity deals with the degree of nature’s variety in the biosphere. This variety can be observed at three levels i.e., genetic, species and ecosystem.

a) Genetic Diversity

Genetic diversity refers to the variation at the level of individual genes. Tremendous amount of genetic diversity exists within individual species. This genetic variability is responsible for the different characters in species. Genetic diversity is the raw material from which new species arise through evolution. Today, the genetic diversity is made use to breed new crop varieties, disease resistant crops.

Organic producers, on the other hand, are looking for varieties that are suited to their local climatic and soil conditions and are not susceptible to disease and pest attack. Research has shown that in general these characteristics are more likely to be found in the older native cultivars. For example, conventional wheat grown in an organic system will have reduced protein content, whereas the selection of a variety suitable for the particular growing conditions will provide higher protein, and thus higher baking quality wheat to be grown. Research has also indicated that yields and disease resistance are better in native cultivars as opposed to modern varieties for vegetables (tomato, cucumber and melon) grown in an organic system.

Biodiversity provides the building blocks for sustainable food, health and livelihood security systems. It is the feedstock for both the biotechnology industry and a climate-resilient farming system. Because of its importance for human well-being and survival, a Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) was adopted at the UN Conference on Environment and Development held at Rio de Janeiro in 1992. The Convention’s triple goals are conservation, sustainable use, and equitable sharing of benefits. CBD defines biological diversity as follows:

Variability among living organisms from all sources including, inter alia, terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they are part; this includes diversity within species, between species and of ecosystems.

Demographic explosion, environment pollution, habitat destruction, enlarging ecological footprint, widespread hunger and unsustainable lifestyles, and potential adverse changes in climate all threaten the future of human food, water, health and livelihood security systems. 2010 appears to mark the beginning of uncertain weather patterns and extreme climate behaviour. Events like temperature rise, drought, flood, coastal storms and rise in sea level are likely to present new challenges to the public, professionals and policy makers. Biodiversity has so far served as the feedstock for sustainable food and health security and can play a similar role in the development of climate-resilient farming and livelihood systems. Biodiversity is also the feedstock for the biotechnology industry. Unfortunately, genetic erosion and species extinction are now occurring at an accelerated pace due to habitat destruction, alien species invasion and spread of agricultural systems characterised by genetic homogeneity. Genetic homogeneity increases genetic vulnerability to biotic and abiotic stresses. To generate widespread interest in biodiversity conservation, the UN General Assembly has declared 2010 as the International Year of Biodiversity.

The term biodiversity is used by Walter and Roses in 1985. Biodiversity means the existence of a large number of different kinds of animals and plants which make a balanced environment. According to “Convocation on biological diversity (1992)”-Biodiversity is present in terrestrial, ocean and aquatic ecosystem. This diversity present in between same species, different species and in different ecosystem.

Biodiversity encompasses the different kinds of life we find in one area— the variety of animals, plants, fungi, and even microorganisms like bacteria that make up our natural world. Each of these species and organisms work together in ecosystems, like an intricate web, to maintain balance and support life. Biodiversity refers to all species and living things on Earth or in a specific ecosystem. Biodiversity brings together the different species and forms of life (animal, plant, entomological and other) and their variability, that is to say, their dynamics of evolution in their ecosystems. Traditionally, there are three levels of biodiversity: genetic diversity, species diversity, and ecosystem diversity. But what does each of these levels really mean.

Abstract

Mushroom has a great potential in India. Its production is gradually increasing at the annual rate of 7%. The total mushroom production in India is 1.13 million tones and on the other hand, mushroom production annually in china is 18.2 million tones. There are a no. 07 wild mushroom available in the world and medicinal properties much as anti Candida, anti tumor (including cervical, uterine, stomach cancer) and antis viral are rotally present. Of the entire wild mushroom tested, T. glolulum has the highest amount of protein, ask, Calcium, phosphorus and iron. A total of 172 wild mushrooms have been reported home NE India and majority of the wild mushroom is of the order Agaricales. There is a need to make a concerted study of the mushroom biodiversity and its use for economic activity.

Abstract

Elaboration of mycotoxins by several moulds in different agricultural commodities has been reported to be widespread. The mycotoxins are reported to cause variety of health hazards in different animals including Chicks, cow, horse, rat, Mouse, pig, rabbit, dog, including man. More than 150 species of moulds are reported to elaborate chemically and biologically diverse toxic metabolites. These mycotoxins  are known to induce variety of diseases commonly known as mycotoxicoses.The fungi which elaborate mycotoxins are diverse belonging to different groups of fungi.Mycotoxigenicity of these moulds not only differ among different genera but also among different species.  Some fungi such as Aspergillus flavus, A. terreus, Penicillium griseofulvum, P.expansum, P.nordicum, P.verrucosum, Fusarium acuminatum, F.culmorum, F. graminearum, F.moniliforme, F.oxysporum, F.solani, F. tricinctum and Cheatomium globosum are known to produce more  one  type of mycotoxin which differ in their chemical structure and biological activity.

1. Introduction

Cold-Arid areas are unique eco-systems lying in the north-western Himalaya. The Himalayan mountain ranges can broadly be grouped in two categories 1) the Himalayan ranges extending to the south of the main range including the greater Himalaya and 2) the trans-Himalayan ranges to the north of it. The cold-arid areas are situated in the Trans-Himalayan ranges which comprise of the Zanskar Range, the Ladakh Range and the Karakoram Range. The Ladakh region is situated in the rain shadow of the Himalaya and is dry and arid. To its south lie the Himalayan mountains, in west lies the Kashmir, in east lies the Tibet and the northern boundaries are flanked by the Karakoram ranges.

6.1 Biodiversity

Biodiversity means biological diversity. It measures the variety of the earth’s animal, plant and microbial species; of genetic difference within species and of the ecosystems that support the species in its widest. Biodiversity is virtually synonymous with “life on earth”, this word was coined in 1985. Biodiversity is the degree of variety in nature and not nature itself.

SUMMARY

The primary requirement for sustainable agriculture is the maintenance of a satisfactory balance of water, air and salt in the root zone encouraging for plant growth. This balance can be achieved by sufficient drainage. About 22% of the World's irrigated area is affected by waterlogging and salinity. Vertical drainage by pumping can control the increase of ground water table in those areas where the ground water is of good quality. Horizontal sub-surface drainage in which the saline ground water is drained away through pipes and drains, is the other regularly used anti waterlogging methods. In bio-drainage system, the characteristic of the trees to transpire water is used to control the increase of ground water table. It is an alternative drainage method, which would be most economical and environmental congenial. But there are worries and doubts on the long-term sustainability of biodrainage. This chapter describes various aspects of biodrainage.

Biodynamic farming, a pioneering method of organic agriculture founded by Rudolf Steiner in the 1920s, emphasizes a holistic, ecological approach to farming. Central to this practice is the concept of viewing the farm as a self sustaining organism, integrating plants, animals, soil, and cosmic rhythms into a unified system. Biodynamic certification and standards are essential for ensuring that farming practices adhere to these holistic principles, providing transparency and credibility to consumers. This article explores the origins, principles, processes, and implications of biodynamic certification. It discusses key certification bodies, the rigorous standards they enforce, and the benefits and challenges associated with certification. Through detailed analysis, this article aims to offer a comprehensive understanding of how biodynamic certification supports sustainable agriculture and impacts the broader agricultural landscape.