eChapters

History of jute in India: In Mahabharata times the mention has been made regarding Jute garments as pattagam (patta produced) for jute fibre products and kitajam (insect produced) for silk products. In Ain-e-Akbari, there is mention of sack cloth made from jute, in Rangapur district.

Kale (Brassica oleracea L. convar. acephala (DC.) Alef.) is a representative of cole group of vegetables and cool-season cooking green somewhat similar to collard and non heading cabbage that has gained recent widespread attention due to its health-promoting, sulfur-containing phytonutrients. Kale is grown for its large foliage which is mainly used as leafy vegetable. This leafy vegetable is helpful in reducing the chances of cancer if taken regularly. Among the vegetable crops, kale is the richest source of carotenoids which is the precursor of vitamin-A. Besides, it also contains good amount of different minerals essential for human diet. There are several varieties of kale, all of which differ in taste, texture and appearance.

In Karnataka, pulses are being cultivated in an area of about 20 lakh ha (about 17% of cultivated area) and the important pulse crops of the state are pigeonpea, chickpea, greengram and blackgram (Table 1).  In addition, horsegram and field bean (Dalichos lab) need a special mention, as they occupy a unique position among pulse crops especially in Southern Karnataka. However, major pulses like pigeonpea chickpea, greengram and blackgram are confined to few districts in Northern Karnataka, although some area is distributed throughout the state. Compared to the average productivity of nation (560 kg/ ha), the Karnataka state productivity is low (505 kg/ha). In spite of the best efforts, the progress made in improving the overall production as well as productivity of these pulse crops is not significant as compared to the cereals.

The total area under pulses in Kerala during 2008-09 was 3943 ha with a production of 2982 tonnes. The average yield per hectare is 756 kg. Cowpea, greengram, black gram and red gram are the important pulse crops traditionally grown in Kerala. Nearly 75% of area under pulses cultivation is occupied by cowpea. The remaining 25 per cent of area under this group of crops in the State is shared mainly by greengram, black gram and red gram. Among these, red gram is mainly confined to the Palakkad district and the crop season extends over kharif and rabi together. The other pulses are cultivated in all the districts of the State. Bengal gram is totally imported and there is little scope for its development in Kerala.

Climate Smart Agriculture (CSA) is an integrated approach to managing landscapes—cropland, livestock, forests, and fisheries—to address the interlinked challenges of food security, climate change adaptation, and mitigation [FAO, 2023]. In the context of the Centre on Integrated Rural Development for Asia and the Pacific (CIRDAP) Member Countries, which span diverse agro- ecological and socio-economic landscapes across South Asia, Southeast Asia, and the Pacific, CSA emerges as a pivotal strategy for fostering climate- resilient rural development [CIRDAP, 2023]. These countries, including Bangladesh, India, Indonesia, Pakistan, Vietnam, and others, face significant climate vulnerabilities such as rising temperatures, erratic rainfall, extreme weather events, and sea-level rise [IPCC, 2022]. CSA offers a framework to enhance agricultural productivity, strengthen resilience, and reduce greenhouse gas emissions, aligning with the region's Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and rural livelihoods improvement [UN, 2023]. The contribution of agricultural GHG emissions

The capacity of soil to function as a vital living system, within ecosystem and land use boundaries, to sustain plant and animal production, maintain or 

enhance water and air quality, and promote plant and animal health (Doran and

Zeiss, 2000). A healthy soil may function is as follows:

• Sustain biological activity, diversity, and productivity

• Regulate, store of nutrients and cycle water and, decompose organic

matter

• Filtering and buffering, degrading, mineralizing, immobilizing, and

detoxifying organic and inorganic materials

• Inactivate toxic compounds, suppress pathogens, protect water quality,

and enhance catchment soil health.

Originating in the New World tropics, peppers have become ubiquitous culinary essential now grown not only in warm climates but in temperate areas as well. They include both sweet and hot chilli varieties. Botanically chilli belongs to the genus Capsicum. The North East region has its own unique combination of living species, habitats and ecosystems, which together make up its diversity rich resource. While speaking strictly about plant diversity, two regions of the country are termed as hot spots. These are – Western Ghats and the North Eastern hill regions. The King’s chilli is an inter-specific hybrid cultivated in the Nagaland and Assam region of northeastern India and parts of neighboring Bangladesh. In 2007, Guinness World Records certified the Bhut Jolokia as the world’s hottest chili pepper, 400 times hotter than Tabasco sauce. From time immemorial, traditionally the Bhut jolokia is been cultivated and consumed by the local people in North eastern states like Assam, Nagaland, Manipur and Mizoram. A good amount of genetic variability exists in the landraces of the crop in respect of Pod size, shape, and colour etc.

In recent years, the King’s chilli (Bhut jolokia) is gaining importance in the scientific community as it was reported as the hottest chilli. Though Bhoot jolokia or Naga chilli was cultivated from time immemorial, but nobody really bothered to compare its heat with other record setters. The field of King’s chilli is still in a growing stage and it components and their beneficial uses are still to be exploited fully. Very little research towards the scientific cultivation of this potential crop was accomplished in recent years and until now no standard scientific package of practice is available for the cultivation of the crop.

There is tremendous scope for utilizing the available genetic variability of the crop in a well-planned plant breeding programme for further development of elite genotypes in this crop. Development of proper and efficient post harvest mechanism and also of different value added products of King’s chilli shall generate a great potential for earning revenue in the national as well as international markets.

8.1. Kisan Credit Card (KCC)

Credit scheme introduced in August 1998 by Indian Banks.

Prepared by NABARD on recommendations of R.V.Gupta committee to provide term loans and agricultural needs.

KCC holders are covered under personal accident insurance up to Rs.50,000 for death and permanent disability and up to Rs.25,000 for other risk.

Premium is borne by both bank and borrower in a 2:1 ratio.

Validity period is five years with an option to extend for up to three more years.

Nitrogen, a key component of organic materials like proteins, is analyzed using the Kjeldahl method, which is the global standard for determining protein content in various substances, including human and animal foods, fertilizers, wastewater, and fossil fuels. The Kjeldahl method involves three main steps:

A. Digestion

B. Distillation

C. Titration

Nitrogen, making up 1-4% of a plant’s dry weight, is vital for synthesizing chlorophyll, proteins, and other key compounds. Plants with high nitrogen levels turn dark green due to increased chlorophyll. Understanding nitrogen content in plant tissues is crucial for diagnosing deficiencies or toxicity and for effective nutrient management to improve crop production.

Determining the nitrogen content in plants is crucial for understanding plant nutrition, assessing the efficiency of fertilizer use, and making informed decisions in agricultural practices. Various methods can be used to determine nitrogen in plant tissues, with the most common ones being the Kjeldahl method, the Dumas method, and near-infrared reflectance spectroscopy (NIRS).

SYNOPSIS

We lag in nutritional awareness. The therapeutic values of plant foods, such as vegetables, fruits, grains, legumes, nuts, seeds, herbs, spices and other foods like dairy products, fluids and meats are to be brought to light. The values of important nutrients, may lead to the basis for nutritional education lacking at present. There is need to bring awareness and add to the knowledge of the younger generation. A food is something that provides nutrients. Nutrients are substances that provide: energy for activity, growth, and all functions of the body such as breathing, digesting food, and keeping warm; materials for the growth and repair of the body, and for keeping the immune system healthy.

In this chapter we will look at the Expert system which can guide and assist an individual once it is provided with the enough Knowledge to do so. Here we will discuss about expert system and its architecture with proper steps of making an expert system in any field by several tools which are available to do so. For expert systems the most important is Knowledge Engineering which is the collection of Knowledge from an expert and Engineering it in such a form that a machine could understand it.

Introduction

One of the pioneering fields of AI study is Expert Systems (ES). It is proposed by researchers in the computer science department of Stanford University. An expert system is a computer system which emulates a human expert’s decision-making skills. Expert systems are developed by reasoning through information structures, representing laws, rather than through traditional procedural code, in order to overcome complex problems.

Expert Programs use professional expertise systematically to address human expert problems. An expert is an individual with experience in a specific field. The expert has expertise or special credentials which most people do not learn or care about. An expert can solve or solve problems more effectively than people can solve. Expert System actually emulates all these qualities of expert and solve the problem in a better way and fast.

Today, Expert System (ES) is used in the fields of finance, research, engineering, technology, medicine and many others where there is a well-defined problem area. The fundamental principle is that an expert method should also define the steps to illustrate why a problem can be solved. Unless an individual can justify his reasoning for Expert System.

Kodo millet (Paspalum scrobiculatum) is a resilient and ancient cereal crop native to the Indian subcontinent. Its cultivation dates back to ancient times, with references found in historical texts such as the Brihad Sanhita. This millet species exhibits remarkable adaptability to various agroclimatic conditions, making it well-suited for cultivation across different regions. Kodo millet thrives in a range of soil types, particularly well-drained and sandy soils, which contribute to its successful growth and yield. In terms of nutritional composition, kodo millet stands out as a significant source of protein, dietary fiber, minerals, and antioxidants. Its bioactive components contribute to potential health benefits, including aiding in diabetes management, improving cardiovascular health, and providing essential nutrients. The processing of kodo millet involves various techniques such as puffing, roasting, milling, and fermentation, each influencing its nutritional profile and culinary applications.

1.1 Introduction Millets are one of the world’s earliest food grains, arguably the first cereal grain utilized for household uses. It has been a cherished crop in India for ages and constitutes a staple food for over one-third of the world’s population. Recently ICAR has designated millets as “Shree Anna”. Several types of small-seeded cereals are grouped together as small millets. These crops offer a reliable and affordable harvest from the regions where the primary cereals fail to produce a sustainable yield. Small millets are insignificant in terms of food production, but they are vital as staple foods in their particular ecosystems. Small millets are more than just finger millet (Eleusine coracana) and include kodo millet (Paspalum scrobiculatum L.), little millet (Panicum sumatrense), foxtail millet (Setaria italica L.), proso millet (Panicum miliaceum L.) and barnyard millet (Echinochloa frumentaceae). The rest of the two small millets namely, fonio millet (Digitaria exilis) and teff (Eragrostis tef) are of local significance in Africa. Small millets have a high nutritional value, but also their demand has deteriorated due to a lack of standard processing techniques to compete with fine cereals. Small millets have a huge potential to satisfy our nutritional needs, therefore we must push ourselves and make efforts to enhance its utilization by incorporating them into our daily diet.

Introduction

In geographical location, the observations taken in proximity tend to be more alike than observations made at points that are far apart-that is, the values tend to be correlated. An area of study that takes this sort of spatial consideration into account is called geostatistics. A primary motivation for sampling is to make meaningful estimates of values at nearby positions in space and time. When values are assumed independent, the best estimate for an unmeasured point will be the mean. However, for correlated values nearby values are estimated by interpolation. The simplest interpolation scheme is a nearest neighbor estimate for which the unknown values are based on the closest measured location. Inverse distance is another sort of interpolation technique where weights are estimated based on the inverse distance squared. Kriging is a geostatistical interpolation technique that considers both the distance and the degree of variation between known data points when estimating values in unknown areas.

It makes the best use of existing knowledge by taking account of the way that a property varies in space through the variogram model. In its original formulation a kriged estimate at a place was simply a linear sum or weighted average of the data in its neighbourhood. Weights are based on the distance between the measured points, the prediction locations, and the overall spatial arrangement among the measured points. Since then kriging has been elaborated to tackle increasingly complex problems in mining, petroleum engineering, pollution control and abatement, and public health. The term is now generic, embracing several distinct kinds of kriging, both linear and non-linear.

In this era of information and communication, in a country like India where more than 75% of population live in rural areas, radio is the cheapest medium available in almost all families for entertainment and education.

A community radio (CR), in essence is a type of radio service that caters to the interests of a certain area, broadcasting material that is popular to a local audience but is overlooked by more powerful broadcast groups. It is usually established by the efforts of a specific community, operated by the community and for the community’s welfare. Radio can play an effective role in promoting social change.  Community radio station is one that is operated in the community, for the community, about the community and by the community.  It can play a very important role in bringing about social change. It covers all developmental and rights based issues, and can help to sustain the diversity of the local cultures and languages. It is an effort towards bottom-up approach to address specific requirements or rural Indian population. An attempt has been made to know the profile characteristics of krishi community radio listening farm women, awareness of farm women about FM krishi community radio and to study the usefulness of krishi community radio programmes as perceived by farm women.

Laboratory animal science (LAS) advances scientific understanding of the care and use of animals that play a key role in research supporting the development of biomedicine. National and provincial laws, regulations, guidelines and standards apply to quality control and licensing, quarantine and infectious disease control, breeding and husbandry, transgenic animals, staff qualifications, animal welfare, imports, exports and transportation.   Regulation and oversight of lab animal use are the responsibility of the National Ministry of Science and Technology, provincial departments of science and technology, and institutional animal care and use committees.

Labile fractions of soil carbon (C) refer to the fraction of soil carbon that are easily altered by microbial activities. These fractions serve as sensitive indicators to changes in management induced soil quality and are grouped under active soil C pool. The method described by Weil et al. (2003)estimates changes in biologically active soil C using a dilute KMnO . This is an improvement over the method used by Blair et al (1995), where a very high concentration (0.333 M) of KMnO₄ was used.

Organic carbon present in soil can be very labile, labile or non-labile. This procedure measures the extent of lability of soil organic carbon through relative degree of oxidation by K₂Cr₂O₇.

Introduction
According to the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA), Good Laboratory Practices (GLP) is a quality system that ensures the nonclinical safety studies are appropriately designed, conducted, and documented to generate reliable data. The laboratory techniques are defined as the processes and practices that are recommended for equipment use in the laboratory, while laboratory methods are based on established scientific principles involving biology, chemistry, and physics, and encompass all aspects of the clinical laboratory from testing the amount of cholesterol in blood to analysing DNA to growing microscopic organisms that may be causing an infection. One of the most significant parts of laboratory techniques and laboratory methods is the proper validation of the equipments (old or new equipments) as well as all the testing procedures/ methods (established or newly developed methods). Analytical method validation is a critical process to ensure the quality and safety of products. The objective of the validation of an analytical method is to demonstrate that it is suitable for its intended purpose; the results are authentic and universally acceptable. An analytical method is suitably well considered when the results generated through different method are consistent, reproducible, and thus, reliable.
The validation is required when
• A new method has been developed
• Revision of established method
• Use of established methods in different laboratories and different analysts, etc.
• Comparison of methods required
• When quality control indicates method changes

2.1 Beakers

Beakers are the one of most important vessels used in laboratory which is made up of heat resistant glass.

They are available in various capacities ranging from 10 to 3000 mL.

For convenience of pouring solution, spout is provided in the beaker.

They are used to perform titrations & for boiling solutions, etc.,

Beakers are constructed in tall and low forms.

6.1 Introduction

This chapter describes the development of data logger of agricultural field parameter monitoring system with LabVIEW. The system comprises of two sections- Fields device and data logger. Field device comprises of Arduino, smoke detector (for sensing hazardous gases), soil moisture sensor, temperature sensor, humidity sensor, water level sensor, battery, display unit, 2.4 GHz RF modem. Data logger comprises of Arduino, display unit, 2.4 GHz RF modem, power supply, PC with LabVIEW. The system is designed to monitor the environment and agriculture field parameters. The field device is designed to collect all physical parameters and communicate it to the receiver end with LabVIEW. For establishing communication between two sections 2.4GHz RF modem is used, which can be replaced with any other modem also.Fig.6.1 shows block diagram of field device and Fig.6.2shows block diagram of data logger.Table.6.1 & Table.6.2 shows the component list required to develop the field device and data logger.

Introduction

India is an agriculture dominated country. According to the report of the Situation Assessment Survey of Agricultural Households by the NSO, 54.6% of the total workforce is engaged in agriculture and allied sectors which encompasses for 17.8% of India’s total GVA for the year 2019-20. The number of operational holdings in the country is estimated at 14.64 crores (Agriculture Census 2016). As we can see from Figure 1 the operational landholding of Indian farmers is increasing day by day. The average size of operational holdings was 1.15 hectares in 2010-11 which has declined to 1.08 hectares in the year 2015-16 (Agriculture Statistics at a Glance, 2021).

As you deepen your understanding of aquatic ecosystems, it’s essential to recognize that the ocean and its inhabitants are not isolated entities. They are intricately linked with the atmosphere above. This chapter focuses on a fascinating and directly relevant atmospheric phenomenon for coastal environments: land and sea breezes (Fig. 9.1).
These aren’t just pleasant onshore or offshore flows of air. Land and sea breezes represent a daily cycle of wind patterns driven by the fundamental difference in how land and water absorb and release heat. This seemingly simple process has far-reaching consequences for the nearshore marine environment, influencing everything from the subtle shifts in water temperature and salinity to the crucial distribution of nutrients that underpin the entire marine food web.
For those of you who will be involved in the intricate world of aquaculture, the art and science of fishing, or the vital task of managing our precious marine resources, understanding the dynamics of land and sea breezes will provide you with a powerful lens through which to interpret the daily and localized changes within coastal aquatic ecosystems. This knowledge can inform decisions about optimal fishing times, the placement of aquaculture farms, and the potential impacts of environmental changes.

For efficient nutrient use, most important factors are the timely supply/recycling of adequate amount of nutrients to the production system and its retention and release by soil for timely and ready availability in the root zone for its mobility to the plant in the presence of optimum moisture content in the soil. For keeping the applied nutrients retained in the root zone one has to reduce the soil erosion and leaching losses through technologies available in hand which include direct measures of soil and water conservation and maintain the soil aggregation and porosity through suitable tillage and organic residue recycling. For movement of nutrients into plant system we need to ensure optimum soil moisture content through water management.

Introduction
Land is one of the most valuable natural resources on Earth. However, its significance varies across professions. Engineers view land as a foundation for constructing roads, buildings, and flyovers, whereas agriculturists consider it a medium for cultivating crops. For business professionals, land represents a space for establishing offices and industries. Although “land” and “soil” are sometimes used interchangeably, they are distinct. Land is typically regarded as a two-dimensional surface, while soil is three-dimensional, extending in depth. Another key difference is that land refers to any portion of the Earth’s surface, whereas soil consists of weathered rock materials enriched with essential nutrients, making it capable of supporting plant growth. The utilization of land should be aligned with its potential and limitations. Being a finite resource, land use is not solely determined by human needs but also by its capability. Over the past two decades, land degradation has become a growing concern globally, particularly in India. Land serves multiple purposes, primarily supporting agriculture, pastures, and forestry. A standard soil survey map illustrates the various types of soil that are important and their distribution in relation to other landscape features. These maps are designed to cater to users with diverse needs and, therefore, contain detailed information to highlight essential soil distinctions. For a soil map to be useful, the information it presents must be clearly explained to the user. These explanations are referred to as interpretations. Soil maps can be understood in two ways: (1) by examining the individual soil types showed on the map and (2) by grouping soils that exhibit similar responses to management and treatment. Since there are numerous types of soil, there are also many specific soil interpretations. These interpretations provide users with all the relevant information that a soil map can offer. However, many users require more generalized information than that of individual soil-mapping units. To address this, soils are classified in different ways based on the specific needs of the map users. The composition of these soil groups and the allowable variation

Introduction

Land capability classification is one of the very important issues in terms of sustainable land use. Land is the most valuable natural resource which needs to be harnessed according to its potential. Land use planning and management is a known strategy for achieving sustainable development. A properly prepared land use plan based on sound scientific and technical procedures, and land utilization strategies can summarize rationally the future demands. This accompanied by a strong planning process, where communities and various stakeholders are involved, can strengthen the decision making process on allocation and utilization of land resources. Land capability is referred as suitability of the land based on inherent characteristics of the soil associated land features, and climatic conditions that limit their safe use under agriculture, forestry etc. Land capability classification is a system of grouping soils primarily on the basis of their capability to produce common cultivated crops and pasture plants without deteriorating over a long period of time. The capability classification is one of a number of interpretive groupings of soils made primarily for agricultural purposes, mainly based on the inherent soil characteristics, external land features and climatic factors that limit the use of land for agricultural purposes. The land capability is governed by the different land attributes such as the type of soil, its depth and texture, underlying geology, topography, hydrology, etc. It also includes soil irrigation classes and ground water table position to decide overall suitability of lands for sustained use under irrigation. The classification points out automatically the possibilities and limitations of the climate and soil for each crop and type of agriculture.

Abstract

Land degradation is defined as human induced or natural process that negatively affects the lands to function effectively. It is temporary or permanent lowering of the productive capacity of land (UNEP, 1992). Several definitions of land degradation have been suggested by different authorities to express the degree of deterioration in potential of land in terms of physical, chemical and biological aspects. It has both environmental and economic consequences. The information on land degradation is needed for a variety of purposes such as to improve productivity levels in degraded lands through reclamation programmes, rational land use planning and also to bring more areas under cultivation.

Introduction

The work on field drains and farm ditches are essential for providing proper irrigation to the crop. Leveling of field is equally important for smooth operation of various field activities including irrigation. Land grading in irrigated agriculture helps in uniform application of water, better water regulation and saving in irrigation time. Land grading helps in conservation of soil and moisture under rainfed conditions. It provides desired surface drainage under irrigated and rainfed conditions. Land leveling helps in the smooth operation of sowing/planting and harvesting equipment.

Soil conservation in hilly areas

Soil erosion is a major problem on hills because of steep slopes. It has been estimated that about 6 million ha of land requires intensive conservation measures in Himalayan and sub-Himalayan regions of Uttar Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Punjab and Himachal Pradesh. Anthropogenic activities like shifting cultivation, deforestation, over grazing accelerate soil erosion in hilly ecosystem.

In recent years poverty elimination has become the most important development objective. Introduce the land reforms and laws for the hill areas as per the needs of the tribal people in keeping with the changing times. It is concerned on the social inequality between the advance majority sections of the society and the backward hill people, negligence relating to the roads and transport, health service, electricity, water supply, education, agriculture and sports. It shall strive to protect, safeguard and ensure proper management of the lands, forests and mineral resources of the hill people. As inequality in the distribution of production inputs, especially agricultural land seems to be the main cause of rural poverty and income disparity. A successful redistributive land reform may increase small household production and contribute directly and immediately to reduce poverty and economic inequality. Redistributive land reform has been an increasingly important strategy for both poverty alleviation and socio-economic development. The impetus for land reform is then the possibility of improved social justice and equity. An effective land reform program must boost efficiency and promote equity and so land ownership should be targeted towards those who use it most productively.

The significant marginal value of land of both consumption and income implies that an effective land reform policy could well be the most effective approach to alleviate hills poverty. The study investigates the effect of other complementary factors along with land on consumption and income. These all suggest that programmes of access to land must be packaged as elements of more comprehensive programmes in order to secure the poverty reduction potential of land. This study also analyses the economic relationship between access to land and poverty in hills area by establishing the link between land and consumption as well as land and income. The significant marginal value of land of both consumption and income implies that an effective land reform policy could well be the most effective approach to alleviate rural poverty. So in this paper we would like to trace the problems related with Land reforms in hills area, agriculture development and poverty alleviation. What are the major problems in Land reforms in Hills are and how to cope up with those problem.

The Resource of Land
One limited natural resource is land. The resource-generating regions found in terrain forms such as hills, valleys, plains, river basins, and wetlands are essential to the livelihood of the inhabitants. An ordered combination of minerals, organic matter, living things, air, and water is called soil. The soil is bound together by grass and tree roots. Land becomes unproductive and turns into wasteland when trees are reduced in size or grasslands are overgrazed.
Land is a valuable resource because it supplies the necessary substrate for the growth of vegetation, forestry, agriculture, and other industries. Approximately 54% of India’s land is used for agriculture. Land is necessary for man to construct dwellings, cultivate food, maintain pastures for domesticated animals, create towns and cities to support industries, and develop industries to produce things.
Degradation of Land
It can be characterized as any alteration to the land that lowers its quality or condition and, consequently, its capacity for yield. It happens anytime human activity alters the natural equilibrium of the environment through abuse or overuse. The main issues with land degradation are:
• Erosion by wind
• Water erosion including large-scale hillside movement
• Salinity of dry terrain
• The salinity caused by irrigation
• Surface scorching of soil
• Logging using water

On the basis of a proposal I had made three years ago, the Food and Agriculture Organisation of the UN (FAO) launched a Global Soil Partnership for Food Security and Climate Change Adaptation and Mitigation at a Multi-stakeholder Conference held in Rome in September 2011. Even with all the advances made in capture and culture fisheries, nearly 90 per cent of human food requirements will have to come from the soil. Land is becoming a diminishing resource for agriculture, inspite of the growing understanding that the future of food security will depend upon the sustainable management of land resources as well as the conservation of prime farm land for agriculture. The National Commission on Farmers emphasised in its report submitted in 2006 the urgent need for replacing the 1894 Land Acquisition Law with a twenty-first century legislation that safeguards the interests of farmers and farming.  Jairam Ramesh is to be complemented for introducing in Parliament a National Land Acquisition and Rehabilitation and Resettlement Bill which pays attention not only to acquisition, but also to the rehabilitation and resettlement of the affected families.

The land is one of the basic natural resources for agricultural growth and development of a country. Investment on agricultural land improvement by way of land leveling, contour bunding, sinking of well for irrigation and resorting to other measures like treating the soil to reduce acidity etc. have been continuous effort of agriculturists for increasing productivity.In addition, new variety of seeds which are high yielding and pest resistant are sought after by farmers for increasing production. Efficient land management encompassing soil and water conservation is the building block for sustainable agricultural development.

Land tenure rules define the ways in which property rights to land are allocated, transferred, used, or managed in a particular society. Ownership of land plays a significant role for improvement of land and its management. If the land is tenanted,the tiller of the land has less stake on long term measures on land.For centuries, the land tenure system in India was based on intermediaries known as Zamindary system.In Odisha, the tenurial system has based on the Bengal Rents Act, the Bengal Tenancy Act, the Bihar & Orissa Tenancy Act and finally, the Orissa Tenancy Act.In addition, theCentral Province Tenancy Act and the Central Province Land Revenue Act were in vogue in the Sambalpur district when the Orissa province was formed. Further, theGanjam district was under the Madras Estates Land Act(MELA). All these laws defined and classified the tenurial system.If one examines the OT Act one would find series of intermediaries between the proprietor and actual tiller of land.Tenure-holders had under-tenure holders. Raiyats had under-Raiyats. Tenants also inducted sub-tenants.

9.1 Planning land use

Modern techniques such as mechanization, better crop varieties, and the scientific use of fertilizers can transform agriculture, but before they can be effective the use of the land has to be right. No techniques will make it possible to grow a good crop if the soil conditions are unsuitable for that crop, and no conservation works can prevent erosion when the basic cause is trying to grow crops on land which is really unsuitable for arable farming (plate 9.1). The object of land use planning is to determine the characteristics of land, its possibilities, and its problems, and try to match these to a form of land use which will be sustainable and economically productive.

9.7.1 Some planning principles

An often quoted definition is that ‘planning is the conscious process of selecting and developing the best course of action to accomplish an objective’. In the case of Land Use Planning the objective is the efficient intensive use of land resources.

It is difficult to imagine any field of human activity where some form of planning is not essential to achieve the objective. Consider going on holiday. Certainly it is possible to come home from work one evening, throw some clothes into a suitcase, go to the railway station or airport and buy a ticket to the first holiday resort which comes to mind. Some fortunate people may indeed enjoy so unplanned a holiday but for most of us it would be disappointing to find oneself in a mountain holiday resort without climbing boots, or on a sunny beach with only winter clothing in the suit case. No, one is more likely to achieve the objective of a happy holiday by a planned approach and this means going through a logical sequence of steps, i.e.

Land capability classification

Introduction: The United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) land classification system is interpretative, using the USDA soil survey map as a basis and classifying the individual soil map units in groups that have similar management requirements. At the highest of categorization, eight soil classes are distinguished, namely, arable lands (I to IV) and non arable lands (V to VIII).

Origin of land capability classification (1933) : The Georgia Piedmont Land Capability Classification (LCC): First U.S. effort to systematically determine the best use of lands by classifying and mapping erosion rates and potential in relation to both physical characteristics and agricultural capacity.

Definition: Land capability classification is a system of grouping soils primarily on the basis of their capability to produce common cultivated crops and pasture plants without deteriorating environment over a long period of time.

Classes: Land capability classification is subdivided into capability class and capability subclass nationally. Some states also use a capability unit.

The capability classification provides three major categories of soil groupings: (1) Capability unit, (2) capability subclass, and (3) capability class.

Technical Term              Definition

Land Use Capability     Capability is the inherent capacity of land to perform given at a level for a general use

Abstract

Continental erosion and fluvial transport play an important role enhancing mobilization of organic carbon from soils and transferring this pool to the ocean through downstream rivers and streams. The Ganges-Brahmaputra river system represents one of the largest transporters of terrestrial carbon to ocean. Intensive agriculture in the Ganges basin coupled with atmospheric deposition (AD) of nitrogen may render the soil more prone to erosion loss of carbon and nutrients. The aims of this study were to quantify atmospheric deposition of nitrogen (AD-N) in the watershed and to assess the influence of land use and AD-N on carbon and nitrogen transport in Ganga River. We collected samples in summer low flow along a 1595 km long transect of the river to assess the status of DOC under variable land use and AD-N input and, at monthly intervals along a 35 km long transect to understand seasonal patterns and the influence of local control. Our study shows average deposition of reactive-N (NO₃^- + NH₄⁺) range from 19.7 kg ha^-1yr-1 in upper stretch to 38.6 kg ha-1yr-1 in the middle stretch. The AD-N in lower stretch was almost similar to the values recorded in the middle stretch of the watershed. The average concentrations of dissolved organic carbon (DOC) and dissolved inorganic nitrogen (DIN) in the river range from 0.62 to 5.3 mg L-1 and 52.0 to 385.6 µg L-1 respectively. The land-derived carbon and nitrogen emerging in surface runoff showed positive correlation with AD-N and the river DOC showed synchrony with land use, AD-N and autochthonous carbon pool. Our data indicate that DOC in Ganga River is rising and the land use together with AD-N is an important driver of rising DOC. We suggest that future climate model should consider large scale regional time series data on changing state of atmosphere-land-water coupling and associated shifts in carbon and nutrient transport of major rivers. This has relevance predicting region specific climate change drivers and preparing action plan for integrated river basin management (IRBM).

Land is merely an area of the earth’s surface comprising all physical, chemical and biological environments that influence the land use (FAO ,1976). Land refers not only to soil but also to climate, landforms, hydrology, geology, natural vegetation including fauna and flora. The land use simply means management of a land for specific uses to meet the human needs in all rural, urban and industrial context, whereas the land use plan refers to a coherent set of decisions about the ways to achieve the desired level preferably on economic background. Thus, the land use planning is the systematic evaluation and assessment of a land and associated attributes for the purpose of identifying the best land use options beneficial to landowners or users without degrading the land resources or environment. It includes not only the landowner or users, but also the policy or decision makers as well as economic experts for financial measures from planning stage or logistic planning to execution.

Land cover

Relates to the type of feature present on the surface of the earth e.g., Fields, trees, concrete high ways.

Land use

Relates to the human activity associated with a specific piece of land. The same land would have a land cover consisting of roofs, pavements, grass and trees. The land use in an area is really an intervention by the people over the existing natural eco-environment for satisfying their needs.

Land cover is distinct from land use despite the two terms often being used interchangeably. Land use is a description of how people utilize the land and socio-economic activity - urban and agricultural land uses are two of the most commonly recognised high-level classes of use. At any one point or place, there may be multiple and alternate land uses, the specification of which may have a political dimension.

Sustainable management of soil and water resources is essential for food, nutritional and environmental security of the country. The total and partial factor productivity of agricultures in India declined over years because of continued degradation of natural resources. The process leading to land degradation are generally triggered by excessive use of land and water resources to meet the growing demand of population for food, fibre and fodder. Various anthropogenic activities leading to accelerated land degradation through salinization, flooding, water logging, erosion of water and nutrients, drought reduced agricultural productivity and nutritional security in the country. These problems can be overcome by optimum utilization of land adopting suitable management practices. For effective land management practices, the soils should be interpreted in forms of their land capability, suitability for irrigation and crop growth. This will not only help the farming community and extension specialists, but also to the administrators and policy makers for using soils for sustainable agricultural production.

3.1. Land use classification

3.1.1. Classes

Capability class is the broadest category in the land capability classification system.

Class codes 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, and 8 are used to represent both irrigated and non-irrigated land capability classes.

Class 1: Soils have slight limitations that restrict their use.

Class 2: Soils have moderate limitations that reduce the choice of plants or require moderate conservation practices.

Class 3: Soils have severe limitations that reduce the choice of plants or require special conservation practices or both.

Abstract

The landslides of the hill ecosystems are either due to the natural morphotectonic and morphodynamics processes of the planet earth or due to the anthropogenic effects or due to the combinations of the both. In the Indian subcontinent, the landslides are reported from three major provinces viz: Himalayas, Westernghats and The Nilgiris. While the landslides of the Himalayas are demonstrated to be predominantly due to active tectonics, the landslides of the Westernghats are attributed to excessive weathering and rock fall. On the contrary the landslides of the Nilgiris have been thought to be due to extensive deforestation and the related increase in the pore pressure during rainy seasons. But the studies carried out in the recent years show that not only in the Nilgiris but also in other hill systems of Tamil Nadu, the landslides seem to be related to the recent earth movements. This is very significant in the context of fastly recurring seismicities in South India and hence this aspect warrants detailed studies for landslide mitigation.

Large Language Models are increasingly transforming software engineering by enabling automated code generation, completion, debugging, translation and documentation. This chapter examines how Transformer-based architectures trained on source code and natural-language datasets have expanded the capabilities of intelligent programming systems. It begins with the architectural foundations of code-oriented LLMs and explains how self-attention enables models to capture complex relationships within programming languages. The chapter discusses applications throughout the software development lifecycle, including natural-language-to-code generation, code completion, code translation, refactoring, automated unit testing, bug detection and documentation generation. It also examines training and fine-tuning methodologies and evaluation metrics designed to assess code correctness, functionality and quality. Deployment considerations such as latency, security, computational cost, licensing and human oversight are addressed. Particular attention is given to risks associated with hallucinated code, unreliable outputs and generalization beyond training distributions. Emerging directions, including Retrieval-Augmented Generation, continual learning and formal verification, are considered as mechanisms for improving reliability and developer trust.

INTRODUCTION

It is well accepted that the climatic changes also influence the geomorphic process efficiency and landform development (Ahamad, 1985). Glaciation, sea level changes, flooding and many other geo- environmental events are related with global and regional climatic changes along with tectonic and other non-tectonic factors like natural vegetation, soil, organic development etc. Considering the role of climate on landform development and dynamics of the Late Quaternary climate, a climato-geomorphic study was conducted on the coastal and paleo-coastal areas of the Bengal Basin namely-lower Western (West Bengal coast) and Eastern (Tripura Paleo-coastal Fold Belt Province) Geo-provences. The main objectives of the study were to investigate (i) Development of the landforms during Late Quaternary period with sea level changes and (ii) Climatological influences on the landform modifications.

A cereal is any grass cultivated for the edible components of its grain (botanically, a type of fruit called a caryopsis), composed of the endosperm, germ, and bran. The term may also refer to the resulting grain itself (specifically “cereal grain”). Cereal grain crops are grown in greater quantities and provide more food energy worldwide than any other type of crop and are therefore staple crops. Edible grains from other plant families, such as buckwheat, quinoa and chia, are referred to as pseudo cereals. In their natural, unprocessed, whole grain form, cereals are a rich source of vitamins, minerals, carbohydrates, fats, oils, and protein. When processed by the removal of the bran and germ the remaining endosperm is mostly carbohydrate. In some developing countries, grain in the form of rice, wheat, millet, maize etc. constitutes a majority of daily sustenance. 

Sugarcane, (Saccharum officinarum), perennial grass crop of the family Poaceae, primarily cultivated for its juice from which sugar is processed. Most of the world’s sugarcane is grown in subtropical and tropical areas. The plant is also grown for biofuel production, especially in Brazil, as the canes can be used directly to produce ethyl alcohol (ethanol). The by-products from cane sugar processing, namely the straw and bagasse (cane fibres), can be used to produce cellulosic ethanol, a second-generation biofuel. Other sugarcane products include molasses, rum, and cachaça (a Brazilian alcohol), and the plant itself can be used as thatch and as livestock fodder.

Oilseed crops have been grown all over the world and are considered important crops due to their economic value. Oilseed crops are primarily grown for edible oil. Recently, oilseeds attracted more attention due to an increasing demand for their healthy vegetable oils, livestock feeds, pharmaceuticals, biofuels, and other oleochemical industrial uses. The increased interest resulted in an 82% expansion of oilseed crop cultivation areas and about a 240% increase in total world production over the last 30 years.

Pulses are high in protein, fibre, and various vitamins, provide amino acids, and are hearty crops. They are most popular in developing countries, but are increasingly becoming recognized as an excellent part of a healthy diet throughout the world. Pulse crops are one of the most sustainable crops a farmer can grow. It takes just 163 litres of water to produce 0.45 kg (1 pound) of pulses, compared with 818 litres for soybeans. They also contribute to soil fertility by fixing nitrogen in the soil.