eChapters

Maize ranks fourth after rice, wheat and bajara with respect to area and production, and grown on 4.23 lakh ha average with 6.72 lakh tones production and yield 1589 kg/ha in the Gujarat (2014-15). The state has 38.0% lower than national yield. It mainly grown in Panchmahal, Dahod, Mahisagar, Vadodara, Chhota Udepur, Kheda, Sabarkantha, Banaskantha and Aravali districts as rainfed Kharif and irrigated winter/Rabi crop for food, feed and industrial raw materials.

It is staple food and feed of tribal and grown as sole and intercrops with pigeon pea, black gram and soybean in Kharif season. The white and yellow flints to semi-flint maize are preferred to prepare bread and other food preparations

Maize is one of the most important food, feed, fodder and industrial crop in Haryana and is cultivated in all the three seasons (Kharif, Rabi and spring). It was cultivated on 6 thousand hectares in Kharif season with average productivity of 2.83t/ha during 2015-16. The maize is also increasing in spring season which was grown on ~ 7 thousands hectare with productivity of 4.5t/ ha. The specialty corn (baby corn and sweet corn) is also grown in >2 thousand hectare area of Haryana in national capital region. The demand of maize is increasing every year due to growth in poultry industry and expansion of maize based industries. There is a good scope of cultivation of specialty types of corn (baby corn, quality protein maize and sweet corn) in Haryana as it is very near to national capital, Delhi. The cultivation of specialty corn and its value addition by establishing

Maize (Zea mays L.) is one of the most versatile crops having the highest genetic yield potential among cereals and wider adaptability under varied agro-climatic conditions rightly earning it the name of ‘the queen of cereals’. Maize is cultivated in all agricultural areas around the world and is an economically significant crop for all human population. It is grown from 58⁰ L north to 40⁰ L south and extends from the sea level up to an altitude of above 3,800 m; covering regions with rainfall varying from 250 to 10,000 mm (Hallauer and Miranda, 1988). Globally, maize occupies an area of about 184.0 million ha with production of 1065 million tons and productivity of 55.2 q/ha (FAOSTAT, 2014). It is the third most important cereal crop and a major source of energy, protein and other nutrients for human and livestock in the world (Jompuk et al., 2011). India is the second most important maize growing country in Asia, and now ranks as the world’s fifth largest consumer of maize. It is an important cereal crop in India covering an area of 9.42 million ha with a production of 24.35 million tonnes and productivity 25.83 q/ha (Anonymous, 2015). Maize is cultivated in the country throughout the year mostly during rainy or Kharif season (June to September, 80%) followed by winter or Rabi (November to April,18%) and spring (February to May, 2%) for various purposes including grain, fodder, green cobs, sweet corn, baby corn and popcorn.

Agriculture is the predominant sector in the economy of Jammu and Kashmir. Directly and indirectly, it supports about 80 per cent of the population besides contributing nearly 60 per cent of the state revenue. The total geographical area of the state is nearly 22.2 million hectare and population of 12.5 million, which is approximately 1.04% of the national total. The J&K is divided into three agro-climatic zones: Cold arid desert areas of Ladakh, temperate Kashmir Valley and the humid sub-tropical region of Jammu. Each has its own specific geo-climatic condition which determines the cropping pattern and productivity profile.

In Jammu province, a small portion of the land lies in the plains along the borders of Punjab while the rest of the area is hilly, dominates both in maize and wheat production. About 67 per cent of the area is under maize and wheat production with the production of 21.25q/ha maize and 15.36 q/ha wheat. This region contributes 79.56 per cent and 95.69 per cent of total production of these two cereals respectively. Even though the yield is not high, the region makes appreciable contribution to the cereals production.

The second agro-climatic zone Kashmir is also known as ‘cultivator’s paradise’. The region practically depends on irrigation, which is easily available. A large area of level land has alluvial soil. Extensive elevated plateaus of the alluvial or lacustrine material (locally called Karewas) also exist in the Kashmir valley. These Karewas are productive only in the face of sufficient rainfall or adequate irrigation facilities. Rice is the chief crop of this zone, followed by maize, oat, barley and wheat.

Ladakh zone is endowed with bare rocky mountains and bare gravel slopes. Villages are located near pockets of land with level ground and irrigation facilities, where cultivation is viable. In this region, barley is the major cereal crop followed by summer wheat. Millets and wheat rank second in importance and are grown in the warmer belt of the region.

Maize or corn (Zea mays L.) is second most important crop after rice in Jharkhand. Though considered as a Kharif season crop, it can be successfully grown in other two crop seasons viz., Rabi and zaid also as the climatic condition in Jharkhand is conducive for growth of the plants. Rabi maize has comparative advantage over Kharif maize due to low incidence of diseases and insect pests slow growth of weeds and crop does not have to suffer on account of heavy rainfall hence, higher yield potentiality could be realized from Rabi maize. In Jharkhand, the Kharif crops including the maize are grown as rainfed as the 80 to 85% of the annual rainfall takes place during June to September. The share of maize under irrigated condition is restricted to only 15 to 18% of the total cropped area. Maize is not only an important source of nutrient to the human beings but also constitutes a basic component of animal and poultry feed. Here, farmers grow maize mainly for green cobs as cash crop whereas the grains are to be used for human consumption as well as for animals and poultry feed. The cultivation of the specialty corns like baby corn, sweet corn and popcorn is still in its infancy in Jharkhand and hence, large scale cultivation of specialty corn in the state will take some more time. Establishment of food processing unit in the state is at the nascent stage. However, the Government of India is implementing a Mega Food Park in Getalsud Industrial Area of Ranchi district in Jharkhand. The establishment of this mega food park is expected to give a significant boost to the food processing sector in Jharkhand.

Karnataka is India’s eighth largest state in geographical area covering 1.92 lakh sq km and accounting for 6.3% of the geographical area of the country. As per the population Census 2011, agriculture supports 13.74 million workers, of which 23.61 per cent are cultivators and 25.67% agricultural workers. A total of 123,100 km² of land is cultivated in Karnataka constituting 64.6% of the total geographical area of the state (Table 1). Of the total cultivated area in the state, about 33.0% is covered by cereals, 42% by pulses and 19% by oilseeds and 6.0% by commercial crops (Savitha and Kunnal, 2015). Agriculture employs more than 60% of Karnataka’s workforce. The large portion of agricultural land in the state is exposed to the vagaries of monsoon with severe agro-climatic and resource constraints.

The state of Madhya Pradesh is one of the high profile maize growing state of the country cultivating maize in about 11.32 lakh hectare area which is ~12% of the total maize area of the country having 90-95% of total maize area having rainfed. Madhya Pradesh is situated in heart of India between 17°-26° N latitudes and 74°-84° E Longitude. The rainfall in maize growing belt varies from 800 to 1600 mm. Due to erratic and uneven rainfall in the state, the production and productivity of maize fluctuates every year. Maize cultivation in the area is associated with resource poor tribal farmers. As the demand for maize is growing globally due to its multiple uses for food, feed and industrial uses, we need to produce more from same or even less resources, which can be achieved through targeting technologies in potential regions.

Besides, monsoon crop due to mild winter conditions the climate allows the cultivation of maize during winter successfully under assured irrigation conditions. At present about 50 thousand ha area is under Rabi cultivation with high productivity levels as compared to monsoon crop. However, the major area increase was achieved during past few years mainly due to adoption of hybrids and shift in acreage under non-traditional areas, replacing soybean crop on farmers field. Uncertain climatic conditions and more disease and pest problem lead farmers to adopt maize in place of soybean.

The trends in area production and productivity of maize in Madhya Pradesh has shown a remarkable increase during four decades. During 1966-67 the maize acreage in the state was very less (5.59 lakh ha) that has grown up by 11.32 lakh ha in 2014-15. Moreover, the productivity also increased dramatically from mere 811 kg/ha during 1966-67 to 1513kg/ha in 2014-15.

Maharashtra is the third largest state in terms of area in the country located in the north-centre of peninsular India. It links the southern part of the northern plains to the southern peninsula. Maharashtra occupies the western and central part of the country with total 3.08 lakh sq. km geographical area and has a long coastline stretching nearly 720 kilometers along the ARabian Sea. The prominent physical trait of the state is its Plateau character, which has up to 1350 meters high altitude. Physiographically this state may be divided into three natural divisions-the coastal strip (the Konkan), the Sahyadri or the Western Ghats and the Plateau. The Sahyadri mountain ranges provide a physical backbone to the state on the west, while the Satpuda hills along the north and Bhamragad-Chiroli-Gaikhuri ranges on the east serve as its natural borders. It has a geographical area of 307713 sq. km and is bounded by north latitude 15°40’ and 22°00’ and east longitudes 72°30’ and 80°30’.

NBSS & LUP has divided the state into 356 soil mapping units and published a map of the soils of Maharashtra. It has broadly categorized as soils of Konkan coast, soils of Western Ghats, soils of upper Maharashtra, soils of lower Maharashtra. The soil status of Maharashtra is residual, derived from the underlying basalts. In the semi-dry Plateau, the regur (black-cotton soil) is clayey, rich in iron and moisture-retentive, though poor in nitrogen and organic matter. The rainy Konkan and the Sahyadri Range, the same basalts give rise to the brick-red laterites, which are productive under a forest cover, but readily stripped into a sterile varkas when devoid of vegetative cover. The soil in the Deccan Plateau is made up of black basalt soil. This type of soil is rich in humus. The soil is commonly known as the black cotton soil because it is best suited for the cultivation of cotton. The volcanic action which had taken place in the Deccan region has given rise to the soil texture and composition. These igneous rocks break down into the black soil which is very fertile. The Wardha-Waliganga river valley has old crystalline rocks and saline soils which make the soil infertile. This type of soil has a natural resistance to wind and water erosion because it is rich in iron and granular in structure. A very important advantage of this type of soil is that it can retain moisture. This makes the soil very reactive to irrigation.

Maize is the only cereal crop which is being used as human food, animal feed and as a source of large number of industrial products. In Odisha traditionally maize is a Kharif season crop and second most important crop next to paddy during Kharif season in terms of both area and production. The Rabi maize is cultivated under irrigated condition, and accounts only 7% of total area and production of the State. While only 24% of the Kharif maize area have irrigation facilities. Irrespective of the season, it is that is the fourth most important food grain crop with respect to area in the state which is next to rice, mungbean and urdbean. Even though maize is grown as a sole crop in the state but, some farmers are also adopting maize based inter-cropping and the major recommended/adopted inter-crops are arhar, cowpea, yam, runner bean, greengram and blackgram. The comparative analysis of compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of area, production and yield of the major crops is the state was done for the years 2004-05 to 2013-14. The CAGR study of major crops revealed that no other major crop including rice has the impressive growth rate a like maize in the state (Fig. 1).

Maize is one of the most important cereal crops of the world. Being a C₄ plant, it is physiologically more efficient than rice, wheat and other important cereal crops which belong to C₃ category. In Punjab, traditionally, maize is grown during Kharif season but from last few years the area under spring maize is increasing because its cultivation is highly profitable and commercially viable after harvesting of potato crop. No doubt, Punjab has been the leading state in contributing to the national food security but simultaneously paddy-wheat rotation resulted in depletion of underground water, deterioration in soil health and environmental pollution. These problems need to be addressed for the sustainability of these natural resources and at the same time meeting the food grain production for the ever-increasing human population. Under such circumstances, maize crop is a viable alternative to replace some area occupied by rice and can help in breaking rice–wheat dominant cropping pattern in the state. Promising maize hybrids possessing high grain yield potential and offering comparable economic returns to the farmers are available with Punjab Agricultural University as well as with the private sector.

In Punjab, maize is commonly used in the form of chapatis, boiled or roasted green cob, breakfast food like cornflakes, popped grains etc. Maize chapatis are used as a delicacy with saag. The high carotene content of yellow grained maize is considered very useful in imparting yellow colour to egg yolk. Therefore, a substantial quantity of maize grain is utilized as an important ingredient of animal/ poultry feed industry. The use of maize grains for such purposes is going to increase as poultry and dairy industries are expanding. Maize plant is extensively used as green as well as dry fodder. The digestibility of maize fodder is better than sorghum, bajra and other non- legume forage crops. Maize plant does not have any anti quality factor hence can be fed to cattle at any stage. Maize can be utilized as an industrial raw material for number of industries viz., starch, ethanol, rubber, paper, cosmetics and pharmaceuticals etc. Quality Protein Maize (QPM) can be promoted for nutritional security of poor masses whereas pop corn, baby corn and sweet corn can help in increasing the farm income due to high market value. In Punjab, major industries which are utilizing maize are The Sukhjit Starch & Chemical Limited, Kapurthala, and M/s Field Fresh Food Pvt. Ltd, Ladhowal, Ludhiana.

Maize (Zea mays L.), the “Queen of Cereals” is one of the most important highly evolved coarse cereal crop originated at Mexico. This is most widely distributed crop of the world cultivated predominantly in tropics and sub-tropics right from sea level to 4000 m altitude as irrigated or rainfed crop. The demand for maize as an animal feed will continue to grow faster than the demand for its use as a human food, particularly in Asia, where, doubling of production is expected from the present level of 165 m t to almost 400 mt.

Maize (Zea mays L.) is the third most important crop of country after rice and wheat and is cultivated round the year. Its grain is used as feed, food and industrial raw material. Enormous progress has been made during last six decades to enhance yield potential through genetic improvement and alleviate effects due to various biotic and abiotic-stresses. In India, it is an important crop not only in terms of acreage but also in context to its versatility for adoption under wide range of agro-climatic conditions. Of the different forms used for human consumption, 45% is consumed as staple food in various forms viz., bread, biscuits, cookies or transformed into corn flakes, soups, fresh-roasted sweets, boiled cobs and vegetables etc. Maize grain is main ration for poultry birds while forage maize is used as fresh or dry fodder for dairy industries. In Rajasthan maize occupies 0.89 m ha area with an annual production of 1.55 mt and productivity of 1.74 t/ha (Govt of Rajasthan, 2015). Being major Kharif crop in Rajasthan, the productivity levels of maize are still below the national average and farmers are not getting better economic returns. However, profitability can be accelerated further by growing recently popular speciality corns.

Maize (Zea mays L.) is the third most important grain crop in India after rice and wheat with respect to area and production. It has wide ecological adaptability and is grown in almost all parts of the country extending from extreme semi-arid to sub-humid and humid regions. The crop is also popular in low and mid-hill areas of Western and North Eastern regions. It has the highest yield potential and used as human food, animal feed and as a source of large number of industrial by-products. Hence, it is called as “Queen of cereals”. In India, about 59% of the total production is used as feed, while the remaining is used as industrial raw material (17%), food (10%), exports (10%), and other purposes (4%).

Tamil Nadu has a total geographical area of 13 million hectares with a coastal line of 922 km and is endowed with 3 per cent of water resources of the country. Out of 13 million hectares of geographical area, the cultivable area in Tamil Nadu is around 7 million hectares and 55 per cent of which is dryland. The State has gross irrigated area of 33.94 lakh ha out of which 79% is under food crops and 21% is under non-food crops. In Tamil Nadu, maize was grown in an area of 0.14 lakh ha during 1970-71 with the annual production of 0.16 lakh tonnes, mainly concentrated in Tanjore, Pudukkottai and Trichy districts. Due to rapid increase in the demand of maize for poultry and animal feed, industrial uses and introduction of high yielding varieties and hybrids, the area under maize has gone up to 3.8 lakh ha with the production of 22.45 lakh tonnes during 2013-14. The major maize growing districts are Perambalur, Tuticorin, Dindigul, Erode, Karur, Ariyalur, Salem and Southern districts of Tamil Nadu. The demand and production of maize is increasing more rapidly as compared to other major commodities. It is estimated that the demand for maize will continue to increase in coming days (Yadav et al., 2016). Thus, in the next 10 years there is a necessity and opportunity for doubling India’s maize production from the current level of approximately 26 million MT.

Uttar Pradesh, a fourth largest state of India geographically, where agriculture is a prime occupation and this is the traditional maize growing state, accounts 7.7% of area and 5.4 percent of total maize production of the country with an average yield of 1791 kg/ha (IIMR Annual Progress Report, Kharif Maize 2015). Maize is mainly taken as a Kharif crop but, gradually Rabi maize is gaining popularity with the availability of high yielding varieties and advanced production technologies. The rice, wheat, potato, sugarcane based cropping is more popular, and maize is given a moderate priority. The current level of growth in productivity definitely fall short to meet the demand of rapidly growing population even it may increase the poverty, unless vigorous measures are taken to accelerate yield, growth, employment generation, increasing the income of farming family and ultimately targeting for the sustainable climate resilient maize production.

Maize is mainly used as a staple food and quality feed for animals. In addition to that it also serves as a basic raw material for several industries like, starch, oil, protein, alcoholic beverages, food sweeteners, pharmaceuticals, cosmetic, textile, gum, package, paper etc. A major portion of the maize produce is directly consumed as a food in the form of boiled or roasted green ears, chapattis, porridges of various forms, popcorn, cornflakes etc. and as livestock feed viz., cattle, poultry and piggery both in

the form of grain and fodder The central rachis of maize cob, to which the grains are attached remains as an agricultural waste after threshing, has many important agricultural and industrial uses. It is approximately 15 to 18% of the total ear weight and contains 35% cellulose, 40% pentose and 15% lignin (used as a raw material in cardboards). Its uses in agriculture includes as a litter for poultry and as a soil conditioner.

Maize is an important crop of Uttarakhand and is cultivated in about 22 thousand ha in both hills and plains. The crop is grown for food, feed and fodder and forms an integral constituent of all major cropping systems prevalent in the state. Kharif (June-September) is the main grown season in the hills, whereas in the foothills and tarai plains, the crop is grown during zaid (Feb-May) as well. The crop is grown broadly for two different end products – grain and green ears. In areas where maize forms staple diet, the crop is grown for grain, whereas in areas adjoining/en route popular tourist destinations and towns, the crop is grown mainly for green ears. The crop is also gaining importance as an industrial crops following establishment of maize processing industry in the state.

The major maize growing districts of the state are Dehradun, Nainital, Pithoragarh, Pauri, Tehri and Almora (Fig. 1), which together comprise about 90% of total

West Bengal is the fifth largest state in terms of (GSDP) Gross State Domestic Product after Maharastra, UP, TN and AP and is the third largest contributor in agriculture sector of real GDP. West Bengal has 3% of India land mass and 8% population with population density of 1029 per km².

Agriculture accounts for about 17% (2013-14) GSDP and provides employment to over 55% of workers. About 64% of the geographical area of West Bengal is under cultivation. There is little scope for further increase the current cultivable area. Because it is difficult to maintain the growth rate in the absence of adequate infrastructure support, crop diversification and market access.

Food production remained stagnant as the green revolution by-passed the state. However, there has been a significant increase in food production since 1980’s and the state is now one of the few Indian states with a surplus in food production, producing nearly 20% of the rice and 33% of potato. Agriculture accounts the largest share of the labour force. Rice, potato, jute, sugarcane and wheat are the top five crops of the state, while other major food crops include maize, pulses, oilseeds, wheat, barley and vegetables. In recent years, significant changes have occurred in maize production and utilization due to increasing commercial orientation of maize crop and rising demand for diversified end users, specially for feed and industrial uses. A sizable number of districts in West Bengal have potential for growing winter maize. Though maize favourably responds to better crop management both in Kharif and Rabi season, the erratic rainfall pattern of the south-west monsoon comes in the way of timely field operations of Kharif season. In absence of any major environmental impediments in Rabi, the desired field operations can be planned and executed at the most desired time. Moreover, the various environmental factors including absence of any major disease and insect pests in this season, helps in realizing the better profits from every additional unit of monetary inputs. Hence, future of Rabi maize in West Bengal is bright.

Maize (Zea mays L., 2n=20) is a cereal crop that is grown widely in more than 165 countries in a range of agro-ecological environments. Even in Asia, the rapid increase in maize acreage in the last decade is an indication that it is winning the battle as compared with rice. The Asian region will see itself as a major global player in the near term. In the past it was mainly confined to food in India and many other countries however, now it has become the industrial crop. Maize has several industrial applications and more than 1000 products are being developed from maize in India and around 3500 products in USA and other countries. It is a raw material for many of the important industries viz. pharma, textile, paper, film, tyre food, processing, packing and biofuel, etc. The growth rate of poultry, livestock, fish, wet and dry milling industries are very high therefore, maize demand will continue to increase in year to come.

Global Maize Scenario

Globally, maize is primarily used as feed livestock and has many industrial uses; however in many developing countries it is still used as a food crop. Small-scale farmers in both sub-Saharan Africa and Mesoamerica generally grow maize as a food crop for household consumption and for saline urban markets. Maize is particularly important in the diets of the rural and urban poor in sub-Saharan Africa and Latin America. Globally, maize is grown in 165 countries in a total of 185.1 million hectares area with 1018.1 million tones of production and 5.52 tonnes/ha productivity (Anonymous 2015-16). Almost 70% of the total maize production in the developing world is coming from low and lower middle income countries. In Asia, maize has recorded the fastest annual growth (around 4%), as compared to other cereals. Maximum maize production was in USA (353.7 million tonnes) followed by China (218.6 million tonnes) and Brazil (80.3 million tonnes) (Fig. 1), while the area under maize cultivation was in China (36.3 million hectare) followed by USA (35.5 million hectare) and Brazil (15.3 million hectare) (Fig. 2). The average world maize productivity is 5500 kg/ha, but the highest productivity of maize was achieved in USA (9970 kg/ha) followed by Canada (9591 kg/ha) and France (8137 kg/ha) (Fig. 3).

SYNOPSIS

Vegetables are essential for well-balanced diet since they supply phytonutriceuticals. About 3 billion people in the world are malnourished due to imbalanced diets. Regular consumption of a vegetable rich diet has undeniable effects on health since they have been strongly associated with improvement of gastrointestinal health, good vision, and reduced risk of heart disease, stroke, chronic diseases such as diabetes, and some forms of cancer.

Introduction

 India, situated between the latitude of 08004’ and 37006’ N and longitudes of

68007’ to 97025’ E, has a geographical area of 329 Mha. Physiographically, it

can be divided into three broad regions, viz., Peninsula (a triangular Plateau in

the Deccan and South of the Vindhyas), Mountain region of the Himalalayas

(Extra-Penninsula), and the Indo-Gangetic Plain separating these two regions.

Geologically, a great part of the Penninsula is occupied by the gneiss, schists

and other rocks of diverse nature. Red soils (Alfisols) generally predominate in

this region. The western and central parts predominate in basaltic rock having

Black cotton soils of different thickness (Vertisols, Inceptisols). The mountain

region shows the development of marine sediments of all ages, especially, in

north of the Himalayas. The vast Indo-Gangetic and other plains of Pleistocene

origin are composed of alluvium of the great river systems flowing in this

region. The alluvial soils of this region depend on the age of alluvia and degree

of development.

Climatically, India shows three distinct seasons:

 i) Cool and mainly dry winters from November to February

ii) Hot and mainly dry summers from March to June

iii) Monsoon rainy season from mid-June to September.

Fertilizer recommendations are generally made on the basis of soil test. Recommendations of fertilizer for top-dressing are best made on tissue testing.

SOIL TEST

A number of approaches have been adopted to increase the precision of soil-test values in making fertilizer recommendations. Four most important ones are discussed.

Low-Medium-High Approach

Making fertilizer recommendations based on soil test for a nutrient involves conducting a large number of ?eld experiments on soils similar to those which are intended for making recommendations. For an individual nutrient (say P for example) experiments are conducted with graded doses of P on a crop for which the fertilizer recommendations are to be made. Thus, agronomic experiments are to be conducted for each crop on each kind of soil. The response curve can then be divided into three sections: a, low soil-test value and high response to fertilizer zone; b, medium soil-test value and medium response to fertilizer zone; and c, high soil-test values and no response to fertilizer zone. In India, this was done

Male sterility is a situation where the male reproductive parts of a plant are either absent, aborted, or non-functional; and therefore, they fail to participate in the process of natural sexual reproduction. This situation generally arises due to some developmental defect that occurs at any stage of microsporogenesis (process of development or release of pollen grains) in the plants. Since male sterility is the manifestation of abnormal growth and development and can occur at any point of time, the action of genes controlling male sterility is also be variable and inconsistent across the genotypes. Based on the type of malfunctioning of androecium, the male sterility systems have been classified as structural (absence or deformity of anthers), sporogenous (defective microsporogenesis), and functional (failure of mature pollen to germinate). In addition, on the basis of genetic control mechanism of the male sterility, it has also been classified as genetic, cytoplasmic, and cytoplasmic nuclear (or genetic) male sterility. With respect to utilization of male sterility in crop breeding, it is essential that individuals with altered male fertility keep their female fertility intact. The fertilization of such plants takes place with pollen grains from other plant that is transferred with the help of external agencies such as wind, insects, or human beings.

In his classic book ‘The Ascent of Man’, Bronowski has written, “When I was a young man, we all thought that mastery came from man’s domination of his physical environment. Now we have learned that real mastery comes from understanding and moulding the living environment.” Our Biosphere, the living environment that supports us all, has problems and we humans are mainly responsible. We do not live ‘gently’ on the earth. The seven billion of us require air, water, food, energy, housing and amenities and we have developed the earth to provide them and have also created problems. That the problems exist are serious is the bad news. That we are recognizing them and that man has shown ability to organize and grow in ascending order from time to time is the good news.

1.1 The relation between man and the earth’s resources

The balance between the demand which a community of plants or animals makes on its environment and the ability to satisfy those demands is not the static equilibrium of a laboratory balance with equal weights on either side. It is more like the unstable balancing of a circus acrobat - a series of swings and overcorrections, resulting in an oscillation on either side of the true balance point. Thus a species of wild life increases in number according to the availability of its food supplies, but then goes beyond the optimum number. The natural correcting factors of starvation or migration reduce the population, but there is an overcorrection, and soon the cycle starts again with increasing numbers.

1.1.1 The Malthusian Thesis

In primitive societies the human population also oscillates about a mean as the limiting factors of starvation, disease, and war, maintain an uneasy balance against the natural tendency to increase. A serious imbalance arises when man learns how to modify the limiting factors, but allows the natural increase to go unchecked. The essence of the Malthusian Thesis is that the resulting instability is the inevitable order for mankind. The thesis is named after the English political economist Thomas Malthus who first gave it formal expression in MALTHUS (1966). In an age when significant improvements in health, hygiene, and the standard of living were just becoming possible, Malthus aroused great argument when he pointed out that these very improvements could lead to mi sery through overpopulation. The key point of Malthus’s argument is that population increases in what he called geometric ratio, what today we would call an exponential curve, because whenever there is an increase in population there are more people to produce the next generation, so the rate of population growth accelerates - in modelling terms a positive feedback loop. On the other hand, when we increase food production there is no feed-back loop, the best we can hope for is for a constant linear increase. The natural sequence is therefore for food demand to increase faster than food supply, leading at some point to food shortage.

Background and Technology Intervention

Managed Aquifer Recharge (MAR) describes planned storage and treatment of water in aquifers which can provide cheapest form of new safe water supply for towns and small communities (British Geological Survey, 2006). It is a part of a groundwater manager’s tool which is useful for replenishing and re-pressurising depleted aquifers, controlling saline intrusion or land subsidence as well as improving water quality through filtration and chemical and biological processes. MAR can enhance volumes of groundwater abstracted through different package of measures and restore groundwater balance. It also plays a vital role in smoothing out supply and demand fluctuations, stabilizing over-exploited groundwater levels, reducing evaporation losses and runoff, maintaining environmental flows in streams and rivers, improving water quality and augmenting the reuse of waste and storm water. In recent times, MAR uptake has been very limited.

Calcareous soils

In arid regions, calcareous soils are developed from limestone or marl parent materials. The content of calcium and magnesium carbonate may be as high as 60 to 70 per cent of the total soil mass. In calcareous soil lime content may vary from a small amount in some places in the profile to appreciable amounts throughout the profile.

Calcium carbonate coatings occur in sand, silt and clay size fractions of calcareous soils. In sub soil, large amounts of lime forms hardpan under high water tables.

In general, pH of the soil increases to alkaline pH with increasing the proportion of water to soil ratio. This may happen in part from a reduction of CO₂ pressure. The dilution of salts in soil solution also permits greater hydrolysis of calcium clay. The dilution of calcium carbonate with production of hydroxyl ions may lead to higher pH as:

Introduction

The management of cereal waste has emerged as a critical issue in the quest for sustainable development, particularly given the central role that cereals play in the global food supply. Major cereal crops such as wheat, rice, maize, barley, and oats are foundational to diets around the world, providing essential nutrients and serving as key economic commodities. However, the inefficiencies and losses that occur at various stages of cereal production, from pre-harvest to consumption, represent a significant challenge. These losses not only contribute to food insecurity but also pose severe environmental concerns, including unnecessary greenhouse gas emissions and the squandering of valuable agricultural resources like water and energy. Addressing cereal waste is thus paramount for ensuring both food security and environmental sustainability.

The scope of cereal waste is broad and multifaceted, occurring at several critical junctures within the food supply chain. Pre-harvest losses are often due to pests, diseases, and unpredictable weather conditions that can devastate crops before they are even harvested. Post-harvest losses arise from inadequate storage facilities, improper handling, and inefficient transportation systems, which can lead to significant quantities of cereals being spoiled or lost. During processing, the use of outdated technologies and practices can result in considerable wastage. At the distribution level, logistical inefficiencies further compound the problem, while at the consumption stage, improper storage, over-purchasing, and food spoilage contribute significantly to waste. Each of these stages presents unique challenges and opportunities for reducing waste.

 

Soil and water conservation measures

Soil conservation is using and managing the land based on the capabilities of the land itself involving application of the best management practices leading to profitable crop production without land degradation.

Water erosion control

Water erosion occurs simultaneously in two steps : detachment of soil particles by falling raindrops and transportation of detached soil particles by flowing water. Therefore, water erosion can be minimized by preventing the detachment of soil particles and their transportation.

Herbicides are applied to the soil in hopes of obtaining season-long weed control. It is desirable for the chemicals to control weeds during the season of application, but they should not remain long enough to affect subsequent crop growth.

    1.    Selection of herbicides: The type of herbicide and the method of application can influence the extent of the residual carryover. Herbicides differ in their physical and chemical properties such as water solubility, volatility and susceptibility to breakdown by sunlight, and microbes. When applied at recommended rates, most herbicides breakdown within a few days or weeks after application and impose no restrictions on cropping options in the next year. Some herbicides however do not degrade quickly and can persist in the soil for weeks, months or years following application. The use of residual herbicides can be beneficial as the residues prevent growth of sensitive weed species throughout the season. These residues however can restrict the crops that can be grown in rotation. Some herbicides can remain active in the soil for weeks, months or years. This can be an advantage as it ensures good long term weed control. However, if the herbicide stays in the soil longer than intended, it may damage sensitive crop or pasture species sown in subsequent years. For example, chlorsulfuron is used in wheat (Triticum sp) and barley (Hordeum vulgore), but can remain active in the soil for several years and damage legumes and oilseeds.

Agriculture is the mainstay of the economy in different developing countries and it is not only nourishing the population, but also contributing a major share in country’s gross domestic product (GDP). During the second half of the twentieth century and after, modern agriculture encouraged intensive cropping with high cost and consumption of fossil-fuel based energy. Yield enhancement was achieved by adoption of modern technologies, but that was at the cost of ecological unbalance.

Introduction

India is the seventh largest having 329.73 million ha of geographical area and second most populous country having more than a billion population in the world. There is no other substitute other than to use every square inch of land and every drop of water effectively and efficiently. Though there was markedly increase in annual food grain production from 51 (195051) million tones t0 206 million tones (200001), still the death on hunger is visualized.

The demand for food is increasing with everincreasing population growth rate. So there is no option other than to increase food production. There is very little or no scope of horizontal expansion due to land limitation, the question of vertical expansion is the only way to fit with the situation. Genetically improved crop variety, hybrids, mechanized agriculture, higher rate of fertilizers and chemicals application may give one or two more green revolution, but the question lies how far it can sustain greenness?

Adoption of improved crop cultivars, cropping system, increasing cropping intensities, precision farming can hold good to get out of this situation where whole system is to be considered.

The cropping intensities in the states like Assam, Bihar, MP, Orissa, UP and West Bengal are 137.7, 137.8, 125.6, 154.6, 148.6 and 159.6 percent, respectively (FAI, 199495). This indicated that a vast majority of lands remain fallow during dry season due to lack of proper technologies, which are under rainfed conditions, neglected. Except West Bengal, more than half of the arable land remains fallow during rainless period. Increasing cropping intensities in rainfed uplands is not easily achievable but there is great potential of intensification of cropping in rainfed lowland by utilizing natural resources and conserved residual moisture. Pulses like black gram, green gram, lentil, lathyrus, chick pea and oilseeds like linseed, groundnut, rapeseed could not only increase the cropping intensities but also come forward to increase national productivity.

Protected cultivation structures such as greenhouses, polyhouses, and net houses represent significant advancements in agricultural production, offering growers the ability to create an environment that is partially or fully isolated from external weather conditions. These structures are vital tools in modern horticulture and floriculture, especially in areas experiencing unpredictable weather patterns, water scarcity, and heightened pest pressures. The core objective of protected cultivation is to optimize the internal microclimate to meet plants’ physiological needs, ensuring higher yields, improved quality, and year-round cultivation. Achieving these outcomes requires a deep understanding and management of various microclimate factors, such as temperature, relative humidity, light intensity and quality, carbon dioxide (CO?) concentration, and air circulation. Each of these elements plays a crucial role in influencing plant health, photosynthetic efficiency, nutrient uptake, resistance to pests and diseases, and overall productivity.
Effective management of the microclimate begins with controlling temperature, which is arguably the most important factor affecting plant growth. While optimal temperature ranges vary by crop, even small deviations can disrupt essential physiological processes like germination, transpiration, and flowering. To maintain ideal temperatures in protected environments, growers employ a combination of passive and active strategies, such as utilizing roof and side vents for natural ventilation, applying shade nets during periods of intense sunlight, using fogging systems for evaporative cooling, and installing heaters or thermal blankets during colder months. These tools are often automated with sensors and climate controllers, making the system responsive and energy-efficient. In addition to temperature, managing relative humidity (RH) is essential.
Excessive RH can encourage the growth of fungal pathogens, while low RH can lead to water stress and hinder pollination. Maintaining RH between 50% and 70% is ideal for most vegetable and ornamental crops. This can be accomplished

(1) Striga
 
Striga, commonly known as witchweed or witches weed, is a genus of parasitic plants that occur naturally in parts of Africa, Asia, and Australia. Witchweeds are characterized by bright-green stems and leaves and small, brightly colored and attractive flowers, Striga has been given the common name of “witchweed” because of attaching to the roots and robbing the host of water and nutrients. The genus Striga (Family: Scrophulariaceae) includes a large number of tropical parasitic or hemi-parasitic plants as follows

Introduction

In classification of irrigation water, it is assumed that the water will be used for average conditions with respect to soil texture, infiltration rate, drainage, quantity of water used, climate and salt tolerance of the crop. Large deviations from the average for one or more of these variables may make it unsafe to use what, under average conditions, would be a good water; or may make it safe to use what, under average conditions, would be a water of doubtful quality. The relationship to average conditions must be kept in mind in connection with the use of any general method for the classification of irrigation water.

However, the quality of irrigation water is evaluated, mainly by the quantity of dissolved salts, proportion of anions, monovalent and divalent cations, sodium adsorption ratio, residual sodium carbonate, potential salinity, specific ion toxicity, proportion of magnesium, calcium in water etc.

Soil and moisture conservation measures are a prerequisite for ensuring a good crop stand, growth and development of crop, and higher crop yields. These measures depend mainly on the land (topography and slope), soil type, rainfall pattern, and nature of the crop. The various management practices are:

Tillage

Off-season tillage is necessary to get a weed free seedbed having good tilth and better moisture conservation. Pre-monsoon showers should be utilized for deep ploughing (where necessary) and blade harrowing. This will enable sowing of large areas in limited time- a necessary in dryland areas. Higher yield advantage with deep ploughing (22 cm) has been obtained in case of sorghum, pearl millet, maize, and rice. In case of rice, use of mould board plough to a depth of 30 cm every year increased the rice yield at Ranchi. For small seed crops like finger millet, soil compaction below the seeding zone is absolutely necessary for getting good crop stand establishment and higher yields. Tillage requirement for pulse crops (cowpea, mungbean, black gram) varies with the type of soil on which they are grown. For loamy sand or sandy loam soils, one or two cross cultivation using a sweep harrow, will be enough to provide a good tilth.

The main objective of any cropping system is to utilize available resources efficiently viz., land, water, solar radiation by maintaining stability in production in order to obtain higher net returns. The efficiency is measured by the quantity of produce obtained per unit resource used in a given time. The objective of traditional agriculture was to increase the production by two means

1. By increasing area under cultivation
2. By increasing the productivity per unit area of the crop

But two more dimensions are added to modern agriculture

1. To increase the production per unit time
2. To increase the production per unit space

In the traditional cropping systems, mixtures and rotations were developed by the farmers over years of experience by trial and error to suit specific ecological and sociological conditions to attain yield stability, whereas modern scientific cropping has three pillars viz.

6.1. Management of important farm resources

Factors of production are land, labour, machinery, equipments and buildings.

Systematic management of plant diseases dates back to 1885 with the invent of Bordeaux mixture by Milardet. Thereafter, a number of contact and systemic fungicides have been reported over the years for the management of various plant pathogens, of which many have become obsolete and many are still being used with excellence. However, the ecological hazards caused by the chemical fungicides have prompted scientists to search for other avenues of crop protection. Most of the conventional chemical and biological plant protection procedures, as well as the use of disease-resistant cultivars, tend towards the direct control of pests and diseases by their elimination. But these practices generally and particularly in case of monoculture crops like rice, raise problems. The risk of developing pesticide resistance in plant pathogens is enhanced by the long term use of the same chemical. The resistance genes of the plants can also be overcome by changes in the pathogens. Therefore the situation demands development of new strategies for plant protection which can supplement the use of resistance breeding and chemical control.

Introduction

Salinity in India is a major issue affecting the sustainability of irrigated as well as non-irrigated areas particularly in the states of Rajasthan, Gujarat, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal and Orissa. Salt affected soils are unproductive unless excess salts are reduced or removed. These soils occur most extensively in arid and semi-arid climates, but these soils are also found in coastal sea areas where soils are unundated by ocean or sea water. Soils are said to be saline if they contain an excess of soluble salts and sodic or alkali if they contain an excess of sodium salts. Again soils are said to be saline-sodic or saline-alkali if they contain appreciable amounts of both soluble salts and sodium. The impact of salinity manifests itself in several ways. As the salinity increases, not only does the productivity decline but sensitive crops also go out of cultivation and are replaced by salt-tolerant, low value crops and other plant species.

Vegetable occupy an important place in diversification of agriculture and have played a pivotal role in food and nutritional security of ever growing population of our country. The vegetable requirement of our country is estimated at 225 million tonnes by 2020 (Paroda, 2020) against only 134 million tonnes in 2009-10 (NHB, 2010). India is facing, today, with stagnation in crop productivity and slows down in agricultural growth. Declining soil health and fertility is considered as one of the factor for such a decline. The restoration of soil health and fertility is, therefore, a formidable challenge before us to ensure higher and sustainable productivity, profitability and national food and nutritional security.

Introduction

The Indian agriculture is very complex and carrying out multi-functionalities of providing food, nutrition and ecological security besides employment and livelihood for over 700 million people. Indeed, India has made a marvelous achievement in attaining self-sufficiency in food grain production after the introduction of Green Revolution which eventually resulted in maintaining all-time high buffer stock in warehouses of our country. Such rosy picture in production trends turned to be bleak in the past few years.

In whole of the world, about 6 to 7 m ha of agricultural land is becoming unproductive every year due to one or the other reasons (Gupta, 2018a). This is, however, more so in case of developing countries (Gupta, 2003). Productive lands are utmost important to meet the countryís growing needs for food, fodder, fuel wood, medicinal herbs and timber.

Abstract

Field experiments were conducted on integrated nutrient management in clitoria at Central Arid Zone Research Institute, Regional Research Station, Kukma-Bhuj, during 2009 and 2010 with four levels of nitrogen (0, 30, 60 and 90 kg ha^–1) and phosphorus (0, 40, 80 and 120 kg ha^–1). In another field experiment, response of clitoria to bio-fertilisers (rhizobium, phosphorus solubilising microbes (PSM) and plant growth promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR) was assessed. Other experiments on standardising micronutrient application, seed rate, spacing and intercropping with grasses were also conducted.

The Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations (FAO) has alerted developing countries about possible steep rises in food prices during 2011, if steps are not taken immediately to significantly increase the production of major food crops. According to FAO, ‘with the pressure on world prices of most commodities not abating, the international community must remain vigilant against further supply shocks in 2011’. World cereal production is likely to contract by 2 per cent and global cereal stocks may decline sharply. The price of sugar has reached a 30-year high, while international prices of wheat have increased by 12 per cent in the first week of December 2010 as compared to their November average.

The quantitative and qualitative dimensions of under- and malnutrition prevailing in our country are well known.  The Steering Committee of a high level panel of experts on food and nutrition set up under my chairmanship to advise the UN Committee on Food Security (CFS) has recently concluded that what we need urgently is a comprehensive, coordinated approach to tackling chronic, hidden and transitory hunger, and not piecemeal approaches.

“Necessity is the mother of invention”, all of us must have heard this statement at some juncture in our lives. Most of us may even have even gone through the motion of inventing something when needed. However, more and more inventions happening today may not necessarily be necessities. These inventions definitely perform the task of improvingand making convenient our overall living environment. Past few years have seen an increasing awareness and understanding in the field of intellectual property. Among all aspects, one aspect of intellectual property that is gaining increasing attention of intellectual property owners is management of the intellectual property rights.

This brings to our minds one question, how was intellectual property management practised by early mankind? We all do know that early mankind has left no stone unturned to make theabove statement”Necessity is the mother of invention”, a reality. Mankind prospered by leaps and bounds on account of sharing their various discoveries and inventions. Way back then knowledge was meant to be shared, as aptly captured in the Sanskrit Sloka:

Introduction

Biological-based crop protection against plant viruses aims to develop sustainable, non-chemical, crop management technologies that utilize natural-occurrants and phytotoxins to control economically important diseases. In this area the efforts were made since the realization that viruses can not be controlled directly unlike other pathogen.

At present in the absence of any direct control of the viruses, strategies so far have been adopted to control them indirectly; like controlling the vectors of viruses (insects, nematodes, fungi etc.), using barrier crops, and use of resistant cultivars. However, success had been very limited. As the biological sciences advanced, many biological systems were utilized to control the diseases in plants caused by viruses, promising among them is using apical-meristem culture techniques to produce virus free plantlets as starting material.

Managing soil organic matter is of paramount importance in sustainable crop production. Human interventions always lead to a decrease in soil organic matter content and biological activity. Therefore, even for maintaining moderate levels of organic matter in soils, sustained efforts should be in place. Such sustained efforts should include adopting high-residue crops in rotation and ensuring regular return of residues to soils.

It is all the more difficult to maintain the organic matter content in well aerated soils and soils of hot and arid regions, because in these soils added materials decompose rapidly. However, in comparison, it may not be so difficult to maintain the organic matter levels in fine-textured soils with restricted aeration and in soils of cold temperate regions.

19.1. Measures that Decrease Soil Organic Matter Content

Introduction

Increasing fresh water demands for ever growing population and it has increased by 600% over the past 100 year (Wada, et. Al, 2016) the annual increment rate 1.8 % whereas the present growth rate is less, only 1 % but this figure may be optimistic. The global water demands will grow significantly over the next two decades in all three components as: Industry, domestic and agriculture (U.N, 2018) industry and domestic demand will grow faster than agriculture, but agriculture demands will remain largest (U.N, 2018). The global water demands for all purpose will increase 20% to 30% by 2050, up to 5,500 to 6,000 km3 per year (Burek et.al, 2016), whereas, agricultural demands will increase by 60% by 2025 (Alexandrators and Bruinsma, 2012).

Abstract

Microorganisms are potential tool for the production of large amount of potent and effective health care, food products and biofertilising agents. Recently, the marine microorganisms are considered as good sources of such products which may possess novel properties. There is a high scope for the exploration of marine microbes in order to search new product of economic importance from marine resources. Mangrove habitat is also part of marine habitat with the plant community having unique adaptation in their morpho- physiological and reproductive behavior. The high level of organic content in mangrove rhizosphre also leads to the colonization of degradative microorganisms and make them responsible for the creation of diverse and potential microbial community. Hence, mangroves are also considered as untapped resources of microbial metabolites and products. Several microorganisms including bacteria, fungi, algae, cyanobacteria, lichens are documented from mangrove habitats. These inhabitant microbes are the good source of secondary metabolites, therapeutic enzymes, food protective agents and mineral solubilisers. However, information on these aspects is very meager and thus the present review is an attempt to compile informations on the sources, properties and application of important microbes from mangrove ecosystems.

INTRODUCTION
A Primary Processing Centre (PPC) is a facility that offers essential infrastructure for the initial processing of agricultural produce, including grading, sorting, packaging, and storage. These centers are strategically located near production zones within raw material catchment areas and are supported by Collection Centers (CCs) in nearby villages.
The establishment and efficient management of a Primary Processing Centre (PPC) play a crucial role in enhancing the value of raw agricultural products, improving their marketability, and minimizing post-harvest losses. A welloperated PPC integrates modern processing technologies, optimized resource utilization, and streamlined logistics to ensure high-quality output and long-term sustainability. Advanced processing methods such as drying, milling, juicing, and canning help maintain product quality and nutritional integrity while reducing waste. Additionally, a robust management framework is essential for supervising operations, implementing quality control measures, and maintaining an efficient supply chain that connects local farmers to the processing facility. The effectiveness of a PPC extends beyond technical efficiency, as it also fosters community empowerment through job creation, skill enhancement, and active participation, thereby contributing to both economic development and sustainable agricultural practices. By harmonizing these elements, a PPC serves as a critical hub for agricultural progress, granting farmers improved market access, decreasing reliance on unprocessed exports, and generating value-added products that align with consumer demand.
The manufacturing and management of a Primary Processing Centre (PPC) play a crucial role in transforming raw agricultural produce into value-added products that enhance marketability, reduce post-harvest losses, and improve farmers’ income. A well-established PPC serves as a key