eChapters

Introduction

The managemment of pests and diseases in agriculture is challenging for farmers. Antibiotics and chemical pesticides are commonly used in traditional methods, which can be harmful to human health, the environment, and the long-term sustainability of agricultural practices. This article explores innovative approaches to pest and disease management in agriculture that are changing the game (Lykogianni et al., 2021). Techniques for controlling diseases and pests in field crops are necessary to keep agricultural systems healthy and productive. Farmers and agricultural professionals can prevent, monitor, and control pests and diseases that can significantly affect crop yields in a variety of ways. These administrators are practicing strategies to find a balance between restricting the use of chemical inputs, promoting sustainable agriculture, and maintaining financial viability.

Principle of Integrated Pests and Disease Management (IPDM)

• Suppression and Prevention: The elimination and prevention of pests are the first tenets of IPM. IPM aims to prevent a single pest from dominating a cropping system or causing damage, not eliminate all pests (Barzman et al., 2015). Three distinct sub-principles are combined in this principle: crop rotation and management, ecology, and a multi-pest strategy in combination The papers in this Special Issue discuss each of these guiding principles. A genuine illustration of the mix of strategies and multi-pest approaches is crafted by Poggi et al. (2021), who discussed ways to control wireworms in field crops. A risk assessment based on the production context (such as crop, climate, soil characteristics, and landscape) and monitoring of adult and/or larval populations should be the first steps in any new agro-ecological strategy.

The land is one of the basic natural resources for agricultural growth and development of a country. Investment on agricultural land improvement by way of land leveling, contour bunding, sinking of well for irrigation and resorting to other measures like treating the soil to reduce acidity etc. have been continuous effort of agriculturists for increasing productivity.In addition, new variety of seeds which are high yielding and pest resistant are sought after by farmers for increasing production. Efficient land management encompassing soil and water conservation is the building block for sustainable agricultural development.

Land tenure rules define the ways in which property rights to land are allocated, transferred, used, or managed in a particular society. Ownership of land plays a significant role for improvement of land and its management. If the land is tenanted,the tiller of the land has less stake on long term measures on land.For centuries, the land tenure system in India was based on intermediaries known as Zamindary system.In Odisha, the tenurial system has based on the Bengal Rents Act, the Bengal Tenancy Act, the Bihar & Orissa Tenancy Act and finally, the Orissa Tenancy Act.In addition, theCentral Province Tenancy Act and the Central Province Land Revenue Act were in vogue in the Sambalpur district when the Orissa province was formed. Further, theGanjam district was under the Madras Estates Land Act(MELA). All these laws defined and classified the tenurial system.If one examines the OT Act one would find series of intermediaries between the proprietor and actual tiller of land.Tenure-holders had under-tenure holders. Raiyats had under-Raiyats. Tenants also inducted sub-tenants.

1. Introduction

India’s horticulture sector stands as a beacon of promise and potential within the agricultural landscape, showcasing a rich diversity of fruits, vegetables, tubers, spices, flowers, medicinal and ornamental plants as well as herbs. This sector provides livelihoods for millions of farmers and plays a crucial role in ensuring food security and nutritional well-being. Amidst the challenges posed by climate change and environmental degradation, the resilience of horticultural crops becomes increasingly significant. Diversifying towards resilient crops and sustainable practices not only mitigates risks but also enhances the sector’s adaptability to changing climatic conditions. Investment in research and development to breed climate-resilient varieties and promote agroecological approaches is imperative. Furthermore, promoting organic and niche horticulture products presents exciting opportunities for Indian farmers to capture premium markets both domestically and internationally. With growing consumer awareness and demand for healthy and nutritionally rich food, India’s horticulture sector is well-positioned to become a global leader in organic and exotic produce.The recent trend of exploring new crops within Indian horticulture promises to diversify farmers’ income sources and address emerging challenges such as climate change and shifting consumer preferences.

1. Introduction

The National Agroforestry Policy of India is a comprehensive policy framework designed to improve agricultural livelihoods by maximizing agricultural productivity including animal productivity along with tree cover and mitigating climate change. The Government of India launched the policy in February 2014 during the World Congress on Agroforestry, held in Delhi. The focus of the policy is to address Agroforestry, which is an integrated system of practicing agriculture, livestock farming and forest activities on the same unit of land, storing high carbon, there by mitigating climate change. Agroforestry systems have the potential to be more beneficial than traditional agriculture and forest production practices. They may be able to give enhanced productivity, as well as social, economic, and environmental advantages, as well as a broader variety of ecological products and services. It’s important to remember that these advantages are contingent on appropriate farm management. In 2014 India became the first nation in the world to adopt an inter-sectoral policy on agroforestry, which seeks to identify the bottlenecks in expansion on agroforestry in the country and pathways to remove the constraints in a systematic manner.

1. Introduction

India is a land of great diversities in terms of people, culture, languages and the style of living, among many other varied characteristics in the country. Based on the climatic, geographical, and cultural features, the country is broadly divided into six zones - the Northern, Southern, Eastern, Western zone, Central and the North-Eastern zone. Eastern zone comprises Bihar, Jharkhand, West Bengal, Odisha, Chhattisgarh, Assam and eastern UP (27districts of UP). This document exclusively focuses on the four states namely Bihar, Jharkhand, Odisha and West Bengal in the Eastern Zone with an attempt to look into the bottlenecks inhibiting the rural development of the zone.The f inancial institutions for agriculture in India was developed with the purpose of financing the needy farmers and providing them the facilities to increase the efficiency of agriculture. As a result, NABARD was formed in 1982. Thus, it was developed as an apex bank to help and support the agriculture section in India.This chapter seeks to evaluate the role of various financial institutions which play a major role in raising the standard of living of nearly one-fourth of India’s population in the eastern region of our vast country.

Introduction

Challenges in agriculture and natural resource management in the past have prompted changes in agricultural education, research, and extension globally. The sustainable development of agriculture in a country largely depends on the effectiveness of its agricultural extension strategies, encompassing approaches, service delivery, methodology, and processes. The desired outcome of agricultural development is farmers’ outcomes, achievable through engagement, learning, and participation in research and extension processes. Agricultural extension played a significant role in the green revolution by providing farming communities with appropriate technologies and optimal cropping practices. This helped countries transition from being food deficit to food exporting (Ratnakar, 2016). Additionally, extension services play a crucial role in expanding knowledge, skills, and attitudes about the management of socio-economic-agricultural practices by understanding the existing techno political ecosystem and exploring a basket of technology alternatives for making informed decisions.

Women Folk: A Precious Resource

India’s ancient history ascribes a divine status to women. Laxmi, Durga and Saraswati are the three great goddesses of Prosperity, Power and Wisdom respectively. The ancient scriptures declared that ‘God lives where women are worshipped’. However, a multitude of derogatory attributes have been ascribed to women in the post-vedic period. According to Manu, “a woman must never be independent. In childhood, she must be subject to her father, in youth to her husband, and when her lord is dead, to her sons”. The passive role of women, unfortunately thus visualized, later guided the future course of action leading to their present status of backwardness in general and neglect in the streams of development and scientific arena in particular.

The term ‘gender’ was first used by Ann Oakley and others in 1970s to describe the characteristics of men and women which are socially determined in contrast to biological differences. The term ‘gender’ further explains, a neutral term meaning either men or women or both in a particular context. The goal is to improve the status of disadvantaged class and get rid of socially created and approved discriminations. The green revolution in India changed the face of agriculture but apparently it contributed to two general trends (FAO, 1996) where wealthy have benefited more from technological change in agriculture than the less well off andsecondly men have benefited more than women.

1. Introduction

Poultry industry in India stands out as a major success story. It’s phenomenal that India’s poultry production whichstarted justas a backyard venture before 1960s, has shaped up into a proven agribusiness, where its annual turnover exceeds Rs 30,000 crores. Current global ranking of India is that of number three, in terms of egg production (behind China [1st] and USA [2nd]), and of18th position in Broiler production. Today, Poultry is one of the fastest growing industries of the agricultural sector in India at present. The annual growth of broilers and egg production is 8-10% compared to 1-2% for production of agricultural crops [3].

Poultry production forms an important Agrarian Avenue providing valuable animal proteins for the fast-growing human population of the developing India, with promises of additional income to small and marginal farmers.Rural and backyard poultry farming is very common among landless and marginal farmer families in India and is a rewarding source of additional income. It involves low investment with high returns which can be easily operated by women, children and elder members of the farm families. Poor households generate good income through backyard poultry farming which provides meat and egg rich in protein and energy. Agriculture including animal husbandry provides 30-40% employment in terms of man/woman days in a year. Scarcity of land holdings, land fragmentation and seasonal agriculture aresome of the reasons that crop production only is unable to provide cent percent employment to the rural youths (men and women).

1. Introduction

Cattle are one of the important livestock species of the country which forms an integral part of Indian agriculture since ages. Human progress depends on the utilisation of animals and natural resources in a balanced way. Cow, in particular, is considered as a part of the family in India. Cattle have been of the utmost importance for the sustenance of agriculture, nutrition supply and religious practices in India. Frequent references on cattle farming are found in Indian mythological books and historical writings regarding their utilization in agriculture as draught power, milk production and source of manure. Approximately 200 million Indians are involved in livestock farming, including around 100 million dairy farmers. Roughly 80% of bovines in the country are low on productivity and are reared by small and marginal farmers. Most of the local cows are managed on a low input and low output system for production of milk for the household nutritional requirement and sale surplus milk to dairy co-operatives or local milk sellers. Poor genetic makeup of Indian livestock is the main reason for their lower productivity as compared to the recorded potential of animals in temperate climate. With the change in food consumption pattern due to urbanization, increase in health awareness, reduced requirement of draught animal power due to mechanisation, etc., the demand for milk and milk products have increased many folds.

1. Introduction

India has 536.76 million livestock as per 20th Livestock Census 2019. Livestock plays a vital role in improving the socio-economic conditions of rural masses especially for landless and marginal farmers; as well as an important role in the national economy. Livestock production and agriculture are closely related and vital for the overall food security. Agriculture diversification through animal husbandry is one of the primary factors of growth in rural incomes. A higher public investment in livestock sector is the need of the hour for doubling farmers’ income. Future economic growth would have to come from improvements in animal productivity. India is bestowed with a great degree of livestock biodiversity which can be elucidated in hosting more than 200 breeds across all the species. Along with producing A2 milk, desi cattle are renowned for withstanding heat, illness resistance, immunity to ticks and parasites and low maintenance requirements. The various indigenous breeds of agricultural animals are mostly the consequence of evolutionary processes. They were improved through field progeny testing & selection. Conservation and propagation of most precious high producing elite buffalo germplasm though the cloning technique is the contribution of the scientists to the buffalo rearing farmers of the country. The Indian Jamunapari goat is one of the ancestors of the American Nubian. Goat milk is an excellent source of vitamin A, is high in digestible protein, contains significantly lower levels of alpha-S1-casein, contains slightly less lactose, and has more non-digestible carbohydrates than cows’ milk.

1. Introduction

Fish forms an integral component of the Indian food basket and it is more so for the population living in the eastern and north eastern States of India. The eastern states of India include States such as West Bengal, Bihar, Jharkhand and Odisha. As per a current estimate of 2023 (https://www.indiacensus.net), approximately a population of 31.66 crore, i.e. 22.15% of the country’s total, live in these four States. Due to the suitable geographical terrain, these states have been bestowed upon a large number of riverine stretches, a large number of natural reservoirs of varied sizes, beels and floodplain wetlands, and a huge plain terrain supporting ponds and tank resources. Due to the very nature of the land and the popularity of fish among the populace, these eastern Indian states have also served as the main stage for the development of fisheries and aquaculture during the last centuries in the country. Further, many of the epoch making technologies for the development of fisheries in the inland waters as well as aquaculture in the ponds have originated from this region.

1. Introduction

The agricultural sector plays a pivotal role in driving economic development in India, a nation with a population of 1.39 billion, making it the world’s second most populous country according to the United Nations’ World Population Prospects 2019. With 54.6 percent of the workforce engaged in agriculture as per the 2011 Census, and contributing 18.6 percent to the Gross Value Added (GVA) in 2021-22, its significance cannot be overstated. Notably, women play a substantial role in this sector, with rural females exhibiting a higher workforce participation rate of 41.8 percent compared to 35.31 percent for urban women (MoSPI, 2017). In rural communities, agriculture and allied sector is the primary source of livelihood that includes 80 percent of all economically active women, out of which 33 percent constitute agricultural labour force and 48 percent are self-employed farmers. Rural women are engaged at all levels of the agricultural value chain; i.e., production- pre-harvest, post-harvest, processing, packaging, marketing to increase productivity in agriculture (Nilam Patel etal, 2022). As per Pingali et al. (2019), the ratio of women to men working in the agricultural sector has increased over the time and made a greater amount of contribution to GDP per capita. They are the momentous demographic group for a sustainable food system (FAO, 2011). Empowering women in agriculture through reforms aimed at ensuring equal access to resources, skill development, and opportunities is projected to increase agricultural output in developing countries by 2.5 to 4 percent (FAO, 2011).

The chapter focuses on presenting the outcomes and analysis of the research, aiming to offer ample information for reaching accurate conclusions. Within this chapter, tables and models are frequently employed to reinforce the textual content. The discussion section plays a crucial role in interpreting the research results appropriately and establishing connections with other pertinent studies.

The distribution characteristics of the variable Age (x1 ) reveals that the respondents’ ages range from a minimum of 27 to a maximum of 71. The average age is 48.675, suggesting that the majority of respondents fall into the middle-age category. The standard deviation is 11.574, indicating the degree of variability in the ages. Furthermore, the coefficient of variance (CV) is 23.779 percent, indicating a high level of consistency in the distribution pattern of the variable.

The distribution pattern of the variable Family size (x3 ) shows that the family size ranges from a minimum person of 3 to a maximum of 10 persons. The average family size is 10.125 persons. The standard deviation is 1.397. The coefficient of variance (CV) is 23.882 percent which indicates a high level of consistency in the distribution pattern of the variable.

Research methodology is the process of planning and executing a research study, including defining the research questions, selecting appropriate research design, data collection, analysis, and interpretation. The methodology is a blueprint of the research study that guides the researcher through each step of the research process. The research methodology is essential to ensure the validity, reliability, and generalization of the study.

This chapter provides an in-depth explanation of the research methodology used in the research. The purpose of this chapter is providing a clear understanding of the methods, techniques, and concepts used to design, implement, and analyse the research study. By understanding the methodology, readers can evaluate the reliability and validity of the study results.

The chapter is divided into several sub-headings for easy understanding of the methodology used:

• Research locale

• Sampling design

• Pilot study

• Variables and their measurements

The research locale is a crucial aspect of any research study because it can have a significant impact on the data collected, the results obtained, and the conclusions drawn from the research. The selection of the research locale should be based on the research questions, objectives, and methodology of the study. The characteristics of the research locale such as its physical, social, cultural, and economic attributes, and the population being studied, can affect the research outcomes.

To accurately understand and interpret the data, used in social science research, it is necessary to have a thorough understanding of the attitude, behaviour and characteristics of the individuals who live in the area being studied. This section of the research critically examines the socio-demographic background of local people in a rural setting. The research setting refers to the context in which the research is conducted, and it plays a crucial role in shaping the interplay of different factors and components that influence the study’s outcomes. The research setting is essential because it provides a contextual framework that helps to inform the researcher’s interpretation of the data. By understanding the characteristics and context of the research area, the researcher can more accurately conceptualize and interpret the data, leading to a more nuanced understanding of the implications and behavioural complexities of the individual and the larger community.

This chapter focuses on key terms and their associated concepts that are crucial for effectively communicating the ideas of the study. It also establishes a theoretical orientation for the empirical investigation and provides guidance for selecting appropriate predictor variables that are relevant to the research.

The scholastic and theoretical exercise referred to in the statement related to the intellectual and academic process involved in conducting research. It involves delving into existing literature, theories, and concepts related to the research topic, as well as formulating new ideas and theories based on the researcher’s understanding and analysis.

One of the key outcomes of this exercise is the development of an operational definition. An operational definition is a clear and concise description of how a specific concept or variable will be measured or observed in the research study. It provides a framework for understanding and interpreting the data collected during the research process.

Furthermore, the pursuit of knowledge is an essential aspect of the research process. Researchers engage in a systematic exploration and investigation of the research topic, seeking to expand the existing knowledge base and contribute new insights to the field. This pursuit of knowledge involves critically analyzing existing theories, synthesizing information, and generating new ideas and theories through the research process. The theory that is developed as a result of this exercise is constructed in alignment with the set of objectives and research designs established at the beginning of the research project. The theory serves as a framework that guides the research process and helps to organize and interpret the data collected. It is important for the theory to be congruent with the research objectives to ensure the research study is focused and relevant to its intended goals.

The Review of literature is a critical summary of published academic research and other sources on a particular topic or research question. It involves identifying, analyzing, and synthesizing relevant research studies, books, articles, and other sources to provide a comprehensive overview of what is known and not known about the topic.

A good review of literature should be well-structured, focused, and provide a balanced and objective analysis of the existing literature. The following are the key elements of a literature review:

1. Introduction: The introduction should provide background information on the topic and highlight the importance of the research question.

2. Search Strategy: The search strategy should outline the databases and search terms used to identify relevant literature.

3. Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria: The inclusion and exclusion criteria should be clearly defined to ensure that only relevant studies are included in the review.

Any perturbation and chaos in ecological setting and its functioning will lead to serious disruptions disruption in both resilience and livelihood. This is exactly what is being confronted by Indian Agriculture upfront. Our soils are brutally extorted to accept the harsh reality that close to 70 per cent of our cultivable land is starving of organic carbon. The ground water depletion in the name of modern agriculture has been another testimony of our ruthlessly prodigal agriculture amounting to serious water crisis. Every five seconds equivalent to a football ground, the golden acres, are vanishing with fertile soil from the chest of the planet. Thus, soil erosion amounting to almost 15 tons per hectare per year in Indian agriculture is not only alarming but also humongous. The losses of biodiversities including floral and faunal counts are adding blistering blistering barrier for our food production system. In the name of green revolution, we turned wrongly illusioned with the ability of so called high yielding varieties and have driven out our valuable landraces to invite gene myopia and gene erosion. This has got a catastrophic consequence. The stagnation of production and productivity in food sector is going to be the bleak indicator of our fragile and frail ecological resilience in the entire production system. But the down to earth reality is that apart from experts, most of our farmers are not aware of this threat, sensitized either. The book has assimilated the data in a delving manner, and real time fact of ground reality that reveals an interesting interpretation of farmers' perception on the rhetoric’s of ecological resilience in India.

7.1. Summary

The present research had been carried out to study the social ecology of arsenic contamination in groundwater; factors, perception and impact on life and livelihood of the selected village of West Bengal and in the end the comparison is made. The study had been conducted at village Mitrapur in the Haringhata block of West Bengal. A pilot study was conducted to understand the area, its people, institution, communication and extension system of these states.

An exhaustive list of respondents was prepared critically with the help of some villagers. From the list, 70 respondents from the village were selected for the study through a non-random snowball sampling method. The primary data were collected with the help of a structured interview schedule by following the personal interview method. The secondary data were collected from our departmental library, internet, Department of Agriculture, West Bengal, Bidhan Chandra Krishi Viswavidyalaya etc. for establishing the conceptual framework of the study.

Three types of Issues are Covered in this Study

• The influence of social, cultural, and/or economic variables on how drinking water poisoned with arsenic affects people’s life, notably their health (for example socio-economic patterns of illness and social),

• Social factors influencing people’s response: especially in relation to other priorities, perceptions of arsenic, and social roles and relationships.