eChapters

Organic farming represents a return to traditional agricultural practices that emphasize sustainability, environmental stewardship, and health. This article explores the principles and practices of organic farming, its historical context, and its benefits and challenges. By examining case studies and the global impact of organic agriculture, this comprehensive discussion highlights how organic farming contributes to soil health, biodiversity, and food security while addressing consumer demands for healthier food and environmental protection. It also considers future directions and innovations in organic farming, emphasizing its role in building a sustainable and resilient food system

Organic farming is one of the several approaches found to meet the objectives of sustainable agriculture. It is often associated and sometimes confused with
‘sustainable farming’. However, policy and ethics-wise ‘organic farming’ is different from ‘sustainable farming’. Organic farming is based on various laws
and certification programmes whereas sustainable agriculture is the practice of farming using principles of ecology.

Agriculture is undoubtedly the largest livelihood provider in rural India. As we enter a new post WTO Scenario and IT revolution, new inventions are happening day by day in every sphere. Agriculture is not culture now, it is agri business! Agriculture constitutes over 25% of India’s GDP. In recent years, much emphasis has been given by the Ministry of Agriculture on commercializing agricultural production in the country. Adequate production and distribution of food has become a high priority and global concern. In the fast changing world and increasing competition in a globalized economy, there is a need for exploiting the available resources to the maximum level and use of best technologies available world over, to cope up with domestic demand of food and also to target export market. This will be particularly relevant in South India, where farmers grow a number of crops, but have technical constraints in enhancing production and productivity because of inadequate exposure to high technology & inputs coupled with advanced production practices, logistics and marketing. In addition, shortage of labour is a major concern for progressive farmers of South India who are ready to offer more wages to labourers. Therefore, they are forced to become machinery-dependent in their farm operations. As a result, Southern India is emerging as one of the hottest destinations as well as a strong market with buying potential for farm machinery and equipment.

Manure is the organic material derived from animal, human and plant residues which contain plant nutrients in complex forms. Manures are used as source of plant nutrients. They release nutrient after their decomposition. They are applied in large quantities

Advantages of Organic Manures

• Organic manure provides all the nutrients that are required by plants but in limited quantities.
• It helps in maintaining C:N ratio in the soil and also increases the fertility and productivity of the soil.
• It improves the physical, chemical and biological properties of the soil.
• It improves both the structure and texture of the soils.
• It increases the water holding capacity of the soil.
• Due to increase in the biological activity, the nutrients that are in the lower depths are also made available to the plants through manures.
• It acts as mulch, thereby minimizing the evaporation losses of moisture from the soil.

1. Introduction

In India, though organic crop production and certification system is reasonably well established in India, the organic livestock and poultry sector is in its budding stage. Organizations such as APEDA, FSSAI and BIS along with research establishments like ICAR- National Meat Research Institute are now putting serious efforts to establish the protocols and promote organic livestock production and certification in India. As a result, in the last few years, livestock farmers are gradually getting encouraged to take up organic production and around 3000 farmers mostly from Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh and Himachal Pradesh have taken up organic dairy, sheep and poultry farming. Export of organic milk and ghee from India to different countries has just begun and is expected to grow very fast in volumes and revenues in the years to come.

Introduction

Sustainable development has caught the imagination and action all over the world for more than a decade and sustainable agriculture is necessary to attain the goal of sustainable development. According to the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), sustainable agriculture “is the successful management of resources for agriculture to satisfy changing human needs while maintaining or enhancing the quality of environment and conserving natural resources”. All definitions of sustainable agriculture lay great emphasis on maintaining an agriculture growth rate, which can meet the demand for food of all living things without draining the basic resources.

Word manure derived from French word ‘Manoeuvrer, means to manipulate, to work, to produce crop.

2.1. Sources of organic wastes

Cattle shed wastes-dung, urine and slurry from biogas plants.

Human habitation wastes-night soil, human urine, town refuse, sewage, sludge and sullage.

Poultry litter, droppings of sheep and goat.

Slaughter house wastes-bone meal, meat meal, blood meal, horn and hoof meal, fish wastes.

Byproducts of agroindustries-oil cakes, bagasse and press mud, fruit and vegetable processing wastes.

Farmyard Manure is the manure prepared by using the mixture of dung and urine soaked litter by microorganisms.

Good farmyard manure is one

Word manure derived from French ‘Manoeuvrer, means to manipulate, to work, to produce crop.

11.1. Sources of organic wastes

Cattle shed wastes, dung, urine and slurry from biogas plants.

Human habitation wastes-night soil, human urine, town refuse, sewage, sludge and sullage.

Poultry jitter, droppings of sheep and goat.

Slaughterhouse wastes-bone meal, meat meal, blood meal, horn and hoof meal, fish wastes.

Byproducts of agro industries-oil cakes, bagasse and press mud, fruit and vegetable processing wastes etc.

Before the discovery of chemical fertilizer in early 20^th century, organic manures and growing of legumes were the ways of replenishing soil fertility. The only other way was leaving land fallow for a few years before its re-cultivation, a practice followed in shifting cultivation (jhuming) (Garbyal, 1999). This was also true for India, where although the ?rst single superphosphate plant was set up in 1906 in Ranipet (Tamil Nadu), the real use of fertilizer started with the manufacture of urea, the ?rst plant for which was set up in 1959 at Sindri (Bihar) (Tandon, 2014). Organic manures could meet crop-nutrient needs in early days because the average grain yield of most cereals was about 1.5–2.0 t ha^–1, while the average yield of pulses was 0.5–0.75 t ha^–1. However, the crop production scenario changed rapidly after the introduction of dwarf, high-yielding varieties of wheat from Mexico, which led to the “Green Revolution” (Swaminathan, 2013). This was followed by the development of semi-dwarf, high-yielding varieties of rice and hybrids of maize, sorghum and pearl millet. These varieties/ hybrids of cereals needed 100–150 kg N ha^–1 in one growing season, and this could be met only by urea or other N fertilizers; organic manures had no chance and their use became almost nil over a period of next 25 years or so. Well-off young farmers cannot even think of making manure heaps or compost pits, the job is too hard and not a clean one. However, what is ignored is the fact, that organic manures not only supply plant nutrients but also build up soil organic matter, which improves soil physical properties, helps in storing moisture and is the elixir of life for the soil biota (Lal, 2014). A large numbers of reports are available on the effect of adding organic manures and crop residues on improving soil physical (Hati et al., 2007; Brar et al., 2015) and chemical and biological properties of soil (Prasad et al., 1999; Prasad and Mishra, 2001;Sharma et al., 2009; Prasad et al. 2014). Thanks for the organic farming (Prasad, 2005), the interest in organic manures and composts has increased in India and it is now a sought after material. However, it has not entered the main stream of crop production.

The market of organic products is growing globally every year. This organic market expansion makes it possible for farmers to reap the benefits of a trade with relatively high price premiums. Organic farming is carried on in almost all countries of the world. The share of organic farms in overall farmland and in terms of numbers of holdings is growing continuously. The market for organic products is also growing very rapidly, not only in Europe, North America and Japan, where the largest markets are to be found, but also in many emerging economies in transition. In India, an organic movement is now emerging on different levels i.e. producer groups, trainers and advisors, certification bodies and processors and traders.

5.1. Organic matter

In sandy soil, the sticky and slimy organic materials cement the sand particles together to form aggregates.

In clayey soil, it modifies the properties of clay by reducing its cohesiveness and making clay more crumby.

Introduction

Soil forms the base of the lithosphere on earth and is a fundamental and irreplaceable versatile three dimensional dynamic system that supports majority of terrestrial plant and animal life on earth. This soil system contains mineral (sand, slit and clay forming basic soil structure) and organic matter as well as marginal air and water contents. The soil organic matter content of the soil system constitutes every fraction of matter in various stages of decomposition that once was associated with the body, body parts, exudates, tissues and cells of living organisms including plants, animals and microorganisms. It is the product of continuous cycling of the compounds synthesized by autotrophic plants among the three kingdoms viz microbes, plants and animals. The decomposition of the organic residues in soil is performed primarily by the resident soil microflora termed as microbial decomposers; though initially the larger and complex organic material is broken down, devoured upon, chewed, regurgitated and transformed into smaller bits by larger soil faunal forms (earthworms, beetles, springtails, and collembola, the macro (large) to mesofauna) on which soil microbial forms could act upon.

Medicinal and aromatic plants constitute a precious resource for mankind. Since time immemorial these plants have been put to medicinal use by Hakims, Vaidas, Ayurvedic practioners and of course the common man (Gupta et al. 2016). It is because these plants possess a lot of qualities for curing the most common or dreaded diseases without any side effects (Gupta et al. 2016). Unfortunately, with the onslaught of human population explosion, industrialization, fertilization and deforestation, the rich medicinal plants wealth has suffered a massive damage. A large number of medicinal plants are now at the verge of extinction which requires their preservation.

India which stands blessed well vast medicinal plants diversity is estimated to have about 30,000 different plant species world over having accepted medicinal value in Ayurveda, Unani, Homeopathy, Allopathy, Tibetan etc. In fact, out of the 18 hot spots in the world with regard to occurrence of medicinal plants two are confined to India. These two hot spots are represented by the Eastern and the North western Himalayas, and the western Ghats with very high degree of endemism. These are indeed the treasure house of about 30,000 or around 45,000 medicinal and aromatic plant species pertaining to medicinal culture (Gupta et al. 2016). Out of these nearly 6000-7500 plant species have been very much exploited for the last 5,000 years traditional system to medicines and are likely to extinct.

Realizing that nematodes cannot be eliminated, and that we must live with them, the overall goal is to keep the population density as low as possible. The economic threshold is the density of nematodes where the losses incurred exceed the cost of nematode management. It is not advisable to depend on a single method to control nematodes. Efficient management requires judicious and careful integration of several which will result in reduction of nematode populations. Important components of non chemical methods of nematode management program are considered in this chapter.

17.1. Organic Amendments

Manure and fertilizer applications are essential part of growing any crop. Besides supplying required essential nutrients theyhelp in many ways directly or indirectly by suppressing harmful organisms including phytonematodes. The use of organic amendments against nematodes was demonstrated by Linford et al., in as early as 1938. FYM and cattle urine have found to reduce nematode population. Biogas plant waste slurry was found to be effective for nematode management. Compost of water hyacinth, oilcakes, cellulose amendments like sawdust, wheat straw, rice husk, rice hull ash, green manuring with legumes, green leaf incorporation are useful to keep nematode populations low. Non - edible oilcakes like those of neem, karanj, mahua, caster, cotton as well as edible oilcakes groundnut, mustard sesame, coconut have been recommended at 2 - 2.5 t/ha for reduction of root knot and other nematode population in soil. Miscellaneous substances like decaffeinated tea waste, rice hull ash, chicken manure, tannery and food and fruit processing waste, market and domestic organic refuse, dead vegetation and crop stalks, wood shaving, etc. have been recommended for root knot nematode management. Castor leaves (40g/kg) along with NPK at 75:25:37.5 kg/ha achieved reduction of M. javanica population on tomato.

Paddy is cultivated about 45 m ha in India, less than 1% is under organic cultivation.

16.1. Varieties

Good quality fine varieties like Ponni, Super ponni, insect and disease resistant varities must be selected for getting higher yield and returns.

16.2. Seeds

Organically produced seeds only must be used.

16.3. Seed Treatment

For 1 kg of seeds 20 g Azospirillum, Pseudomonas and 10 g Phospobacteria must be used with rice gruel.

Panchagavya spray @ 1% for treating the seeds.

Organic food production is as much a state of mind as it is a production system. The organic farmer must understand how everything is interrelated and how one set of circumstances will influence other factors in how the plant grows. A strong, healthy plant is much more important in an organic system then a conventional system. A two to three year leaning curve must be accepted by anyone intending to switch from conventional to organic farming. What works one year may fail the next.

Pulses are an important source of proteins. One hundred grams of pulses contain about 25-32 grams of proteins and several amino acids which are not made by the human body (Sidhu, 2015). These are the staple food both for vegetarians and non-vegetarians of the country. India is not only the largest consumer of the pulses in the world but it is also the largest producer and importer. The global production of pulses is about 70 million tonnes, of which India’s share is around 25 percent.

The consumption of pulses is historically part and parcel of Indian culture. However, over a period of time, the availability of pulses has declined from69 gram per capita per day in 1961 to 51 gram in 1971 and 38grams in 1981. Marginally it arose to 42 gram in 1991 which already declined to 30 gram in 2001. The National Food Security Mission (NFSM) was started by the union Government for pulses during 2007. It did not result in a significant increase in the output because pulses are grown only in 16 per cent area which is irrigated. The area under cultivation for pulses varied from 23 million hectare in 2009- 2010 and 26 million hectares 2021-2022 and production was14.6 mt. to 28.9 mt. At present the availability of pulses is about 42 g per capita per day.

Summary

The use of organic resources in modern agriculture implies the production of crops through organic farming without doing any damage to the environment. Synthetic chemicals are never used in organic farming. This avoids having much pressure on nature’s non-renewable resources used in farming activities. In this unit, we shall discuss many organic resources, their quality and management within ISFM.

Sources of plant nutrients include residual soil nutrients, crop residues, green manures, animal manures and biosolids, biologically-fixed nitrogen and manufactured fertilizers. Crops use plant nutrient from all sources but the nutrient elements must be transformed into the ionic forms before being taken by plants. The amount of nutrients provided by different sources varies between and within agro-ecosystems. Integrated plant nutrient management identifies and uses all available sources of plant nutrients

Rose (Rosa centifolia Linn) belongs to the family Rosaceae is known as flower of love which is cultivated throughout the world. The traditionally grown rose f lowers are fragile wild, bloom only for a limited period. They are found in a few colours of red, pink, deep crimson vis-a-vis white colour. However, with the development of the clonal technology, tissue culture and hybridization, a wide variety of roses can be grown having different colours, fragrances, blooms and shapes. It is point to mention that from the 200 species of roses originally found there are more than 30,000 varieties available these days.

The cultivation of rose is believed to have started about 5.000 years ago in China. Initially, Romans started to cultivate the rose flower using organic manures for medicinal purposes and then tor aesthetic values. Briefly their medicinal values have been mentioned separately as reported by Gupta et al 2016. It is not until late 8th century that cultivation of roses was introduced into Europe. Unlike Europe and America where rosses have limited flowering period during the summer.

Organically produced seeds are obtained by adapting the organic crop production system. Organic seed is a critical input but specialised efforts to produce organic seeds are not adequately and systematically followed. Accredited organic farming standards recognises the organic seed production as a prerequisite to organic farming. Seed health is important in organic seeds since seeds are not treated with chemical fungicides.

Soil is a living system and soil fertility is the key to agricultural productivity. Any input that destroys this living system and undermines soil health basically undermines the agricultural productivity. The maintenance of the fertility of soil is the primary step in any permanent system of agriculture.

Fertile land and sufficient water are vital for sustaining agriculture and livelihoods. Fertility of a soil is defined by its ability to provide all essential nutrients in adequate quantities and in the proper balance for the growth of plants – independent of direct application of nutrients – when other growth factors like light, temperature and water are favorable. This ability does not depend on the nutrient content of the soil only, but on its efficiency in transforming nutrients within the farm’s nutrient circle.

In transformation of nutrients soil organisms play a key role. They break down biomass from crop residues, green manures and mulch and contribute to build up of soil organic matter, including humus, the soil’s most important nutrient reservoir. They also play an essential role in transferring nutrients from the soil organic matter to the mineral stage, which is available to plants. Soil organisms also protect plants from disease and make the soil crumbly.

A fertile soil is easy to work, absorbs rainwater well, and is robust against siltation and erosion. It filters rain water and supplies us with clean drinking water. It neutralizes (buffers) acids, which pass through contaminated air to the soil surface, and decomposes pollutants such as pesticides rapidly. And last but not least a fertile soil is an efficient storage for nutrients and CO₂. In this way a fertile soil prevents the eutrophication of rivers, lakes and oceans and contributes to the reduction of global warming.

In the context of biological agriculture soil fertility is thus primarily the result of biological processes, not of chemical nutrients. A fertile soil is in active exchange with the plants, restructures itself and is capable of regeneration. The biological properties can be observed in the soil’s conversion activity, in the presence and the visible traces of the organisms in it. The communities of microorganisms are robust and active at the right moment. In the self-regulating ecological equilibrium animals, plants and microorganisms all work for each other.

It is the responsibility of farmers to understand soil ecology to the point that they can create or restore the conditions for a robust balance in the soil. If a soil does not regularly bring good yields, farmers should investigate the reasons for it.

India is the second largest producer of vegetables after China. The diverse agro climatic conditions of India offer an immense scope for production of organic vegetables throughout the year. The increase in area, production and productivity associated with nutrition and health security awareness demands lot of promotion of organic vegetables cultivation in the region since these products sell at the premium prices in the domestic and overseas market (Sandhu and Khera, 2008). It is because the major contribution of vegetables to human health is the large amount of Vitamin C and A as well as folic acid and good number of dietary fibres and minerals (Sanwal, 2008). Apart from this, the phytochemicals in vegetables protect the human body from cancers and cardiovascular diseases. Under organic mode of cultivation one can get an average yield of 25-30 tonnes of good quality potato vegetable crop per hectare (Sachan et al. 2008). It is worthwhile to mention that the potato is a key world food vegetable crop which is produced in 130 nations. It is grown from sea level to 3900 m elevation and its edible dry matter accounts for a higher volume of the food consumed in the world than fish and meat combined together (Sachan et al. 2008). More potatoes are consumed by the world’s population than any other vegetables.

Introduction

During the past 60 years, conventional agriculture has become increasingly dependent upon petroleum-based. Chcmically-synthesized fertilizers and pesticides for crop protection and to supply plant nutrients. Certainly, these energy intensive technologies have contributed greatly to this Nation’s agricultural productivity. However, sharply escalating production costs associated with the increasing cost and uncertain availability of energy i.e., fuel and fertilizers, have generated considerable interest in less expensive and more environmentally compatible production alternatives such as organic farming (USDA, 1980). The apparent decline in soil productivity throughout the world from excessive soil erosion, nutrient runoff and loss of soil organic matter; the impairment of environmental quality from sedimentation and pollution of natural waters by agricultural chemicals and the potential hazards to human and animal health and food safety from heavy use of pesticides, have also stimulated interest in organic farming systems of food production.

Use of organic wastes and residues in agriculture

Most countries have traditionally utilized various kinds of organic materials to maintain or improve the fertility, and productivity of their agricultural soils. However, several decades ago organic recycling practices were largely replaced with chemical fertilizers which were applied to high yielding cereal grains that responded best to a high level of fertility and adequate moisture, including irrigation. Soil cultivation was also intensified to improve weed control and seedbed conditions. Consequently, the importance of organic matter to crop production received less emphasis, and its proper use in soil management was neglected, or even forgotten. As a result of this and failure to implement effective soil conservation practices, the agricultural soils in a number of developed and developing countries have undergone serious degradation and decline in productivity.

The soil microorganisms thrive on organic matter in soil by feeding readily on soluble substrates and rather slowly on insoluble substrates. Organisms derive carbon and energy during the process of organic matter decomposition and release organically-bound carbon, thereby decrease C :N ratio and utilize nutrients. Any decrease in organic matter content in soil is likely to affect the microbial biomass and their activities thereby influence the soil fertility and productivity. It is, therefore, imperative to recycle the organic matter in soil in whatsoever form it may be. The raw organic matter requires appropriate treatment to boost decomposition process.

Solid wastes, which are left after the fermentation process is complete, may be potential sources for use as fertilizers and feed stuffs.

I. Antibiotic Fermentation Wastes

Antibiotics are produced by microoganisms and have capacity, in dilute solution, to inhibit the growth or even destroy the other microorganisms. They are produced on a large scale using fermentation process except chloroamphenicol which has been produced synthetically since 1948. Solid wastes remaining after the liquid containing the antibiotic has been extracted from the fermentation broth need to utilised. This is usually done by filtration. The solids are a heterogeneous mixture of hyphae of the producing organism, unused media, defoaming oils and metabolic products of the micro-organisms, the most important of which is residual antibiotic. The levels of residual antibiotic can vary a great deal.

Indian agriculture has grown over past 50 years from subsistence type of farming to a market surplus one with the present food grain production above 250 million tones (Fig. 1) which was only 50 million tones in 1950. At the same time the country has struggled over the years to meet the fertilizer requirement. More than 50 per cent fertilizer consumption is imported.

Microbiology is a branch of science dealing with the study of organisms which are too small to be seen clearly by unaided eye. Roughly the organisms with a diameter of 0.1mm or less, which can not be seen by the human eyes unaided, come under the domain of microorganisms.

Thus, the laboratory work dealing with the microorganisms needs special care to avoid infection and infusion for maintaining good health. In fact all microorganisms should be treated as potential pathogens. Thus, for working with microorganisms aseptic techniques must be followed by students as well as by the laboratory assistants and teachers.

Introduction Organizational structure and management represent fundamental dimensions of community mobilization that determine how collective efforts are organized, coordinated, and sustained over time while building institutional capacity for effective action and long-term development success. The design and implementation of appropriate organizational arrangements significantly influence the ability of community groups and development organizations to achieve their goals while maintaining community ownership, democratic participation, and adaptive capacity that can respond to changing circumstances and emerging opportunities. The complexity of contemporary community challenges requires sophisticated organizational approaches that can coordinate diverse activities and stakeholders while maintaining flexibility and responsiveness to local conditions and community preferences. Effective

Onion (Allium cepa L.) is one of the oldest and most widely cultivated vegetable crops, with a history of domestication extending over five thousand years. Valued for its culinary, medicinal, nutritional and cultural importance, it has travelled across continents through migration, trade and agricultural exchange. Its broad ecological adaptability has enabled cultivation in temperate, subtropical and tropical regions. The chapter examines probable centres of origin, historical evidence of cultivation, domestication and geographical dispersal. It also explains onion’s nutritional and therapeutic significance, global production status, genetic diversification and role in human civilization, providing a historical foundation for understanding modern onion improvement and cultivation.

During the 19^th century various hypotheses were advanced about the origin of earth. These hypotheses can be grouped into two general classes:

1. Monistic hypotheses: The pioneers of this hypotheses believed that only one mass or body was responsible for the creation of the solar system. The representative of this theory is Nebular hypothesis. The advocates of this hypothesis were Kant and Laplace.

2. Dualistic hypotheses: The advocates of this hypothesis believed that two separate masses or bodies were responsible for the creation of the solar system. The representatives of this hypothesis are Planetesimal hypothesis and Tidal hypothesis. The pioneer of Planetesimal hypothesis was the great English scientist T. C. Chamberlain. The Tidal hypothesis was advocated by another English geographer named James Jeans.

Pulses are the second most important group of crops next to cereals in Orissa occupying about 22% of total cropped area as compared to 54% for cereals. The state grows ten pulse crops, namely, greengram, blackgram, pigeonpea, horsegram, lentil, gram, cowpea, Rajmash, Lathyrus and ricebean out of which the first four crops cover 88% of total pulses area and 85% of total pulses production.
 
During 2008-09, pulse crops in Orissa were grown in about 20 lakh ha having production of  9.94 lakh tonnes and average productivity of 497 kg/ha (Table 1).

Gingers  belong to Zingiberaceae family and are made up of about 1000 species in 47 genera. They have numerous members with aromatic oils that have made them popular for perfumes and ornamentals. Ornamental gingers, while related to edibles, are usually grown for their looks instead of their flavor. A very large and diverse group of gingers are valued both for their tropical foliage and for their large, colorful flower heads. From the startling red ginger to the subtle shell ginger, these attractive plants are easy to grow in home landscapes in tropical and semi-tropical areas. They are great for tub gardens They can be very rewarding to grow, and with some simple care will continue to produce beautiful leaves and flowers for many years which also have cut flower value.

Potato (Solanum tuberosum L.)

Potato is the third most important food crop in the world after rice and wheat in terms of human consumption. Potatoes are an important staple food crop. Introduced into Europe in the 16th century by Spanish explorers, it is cultivated throughout the world including the Indo-Pakistan subcontinent.

Botanical Name : Solanum tuberosum L.

Family : Solanaceae

Importance

• Potato is an economical food, as it provides a source of low cost energy to human diet.
• For vegetable purposes, potato has now become one of the most popular crops in India and cultivated in almost all states and under very diverse agro climate conditions.
• Potatoes are a rich source of starch

13 1. Rishi Krishi

Drawn from Vedas, the Rishi Krishi method of natural farming has been mastered by farmers of Maharashtra and Madhya Pradesh. In this method, all on-farm sources of nutrients including composts, cattle dung manure, green leaf manure and crop biomass for mulching are exploited to their best potential with continuous soil enrichment through the use of Rishi Krishi formulation known as “Amritpani” and virgin soil. 15 kg of virgin rhizosperic soil collected from beneath of Banyan tree (Ficus bengalensis) is spread over one acre and the soil is enriched with 200 lit Amritpani.

It is prepared by mixing 250 g ghee into 10 kg of cow dung followed by 500 g honey and diluted with 200 lit of water. This formulation is utilized for seed treatment (beej sanskar), enrichment of soil (bhumi sanskar) and foliar spray on plants (padap sanskar). For soil treatment it needs to be applied through irrigation water as fertigation. The system has been demonstrated on a wide range of crops i.e. fruits, vegetables, cereals, pulses, oilseeds, sugarcane and cotton.

Introduction

Rice is the world’s most important staple crop and is a primary source of energy and nutrition for about half of the world’s population. So it is the most important cereal crop with respect to food security of common people. Due to increasing world population and shrinkage of farm land holdings there is an urgent need to increase the grain productivity. Therefore, increasing grain yield has become the primary objective in many rice-breeding programs. India is the second highest rice producer (about 120 million ton/year) in the world and able to meet the demand of rice for the entire Indian population. But along with yield improvement of rice, quality has now become a foremost consideration for rice consumers and millers. Quality is defined as “the totality of features and characteristics of a product or service that bears its ability to satisfy stated or implied needs” (International Standard Organization (ISO) 8402 1986). The concept of grain quality covers many physico-chemical properties such as grain shape and size, milling and cooking properties, amylose content, stickiness, chalkiness, texture, colour, gelatinization characters and various nutritional properties. Thus, rice grain quality generally includes five main classes i.e. (i) milling quality, (ii) physical quality, (iii) cooking and eating quality (iv) sensory quality and (v) nutritional quality. Grain quality and its assessment are very important to consumers, millers and rice breeders who are engaged in varietal improvement programme, related to new features such as high nutritional quality, high yield potential, highly resistant to abiotic or biotic stresses, higher water use efficiency etc.

Our Soils – Our Waters & COP22

In the last several decades many international forums and institutions have discussed and agreed that food and water security are the most important issues for the future. The damage to the ecology directly affects the food, land, water, health and the livelihood. Agricultural progress serves as the best way to fight poverty, hunger and livelihood problems.

Though in the last few decades, billions of pages about hunger, food and water security have been written, thousands of conferences have been organized, the urgency of action plans and creating holistic models is the most important need. For this, we must require bold reforms and action oriented programs which can reach the smallest farmers and give an optimistic signal rather than a despondent picture. Developmental models that are holistic and close to nature, sustainable and based on inclusiveness considering ‘unto the last’ women and man are the need of the day.

In the last several decades many international forums and institutions have discussed and agreed that food and water security are the most important issues for the future. The damage to the ecology directly affects the food, land, water, health and the livelihood. Agricultural progress serves as the best way to fight poverty, hunger and livelihood problems. Though in the last few decades, billions of pages about hunger, food and water security have been written, thousands of conferences have been organized, the urgency of action plans and creating holistic models is the most important need. For this, we must require bold reforms and action oriented programs which can reach the smallest farmers and give an optimistic signal rather than a despondent picture. Developmental models that are holistic and close to nature, sustainable and based on inclusiveness considering ‘unto the last’ women and man are the need of the day. Land and water together with biodiversity and atmosphere conditions are the foundations for sustainable food security. The ecological damage to these foundations are leading to lowering of productivity and livelihood. This will further aggregate with the threat of climate changes such as temperature, rain falls and sea level rise. As per the exercise by World Food Program, it is indicated that the green revolution states like Punjab and Haryana may become food insecure in another 20 years. Food insecurity is measure in terms of land degradation and salinization, ground water tables and green cover loss. *Based on Key Note address at Global Water Meet for Climate Change Adaptation – Agrarian Perspectives : 24 – 26 OCT. 2016 – UAS – DHARWAD – INDIA
Our Soils
The year 2015 was declared ‘ The International Year of Soil’. This is understandable. A healthy soil is key to farm productivity and healthy life (Annexure – 1). In India, out of 306 m. ha reported under various land uses,

Introduction

The 21st Century agriculture needs knowledge integration and maximum input efficiency. Crop simulation models offer possibilities to evaluate and target agricultural information towards sustainability (Elliott et al., 2015; Van Oort and Zwart, 2018). All the modern day’s crop growth models not only predict the growth and yield, but also they are strong Decision Support System (DSS). Due to the impact of climate change, land degradation and biodiversity loss, the agricultural production system becomes the most vulnerable one (Araya et al., 2017). Crop intensification is inevitable to meet the ever-increasing food demand for the billions of populations. It leads to deterioration of soil physical health, reduction of the organic carbon percentage and micro-environmental pollution. Conservation agriculture (CA) has a great potentiality to enhance the inherent resilience against all sorts of degradation and possess the potentiality to regenerate the degraded lands (Haggblade and Tembo, 2003). CA is a farming system that maintains a permanent soil cover to assure its protection, avoids soil tillage, and cultivates a diverse range of plant-species to improve soil conditions, reduce land degradation and increase water and nutrient use efficiency (Friedrich et al., 2012; Sapkota et al., 2015; Bell et al., 2019; Steward et al., 2019). For last few decades, climate change becomes a serious threat to agriculture in context to influence crop and livestock production, hydrological balances, input supplies and other components of agricultural system (Kabir, 2015; Kumar and Kumar, 2016). Agriculture is inherently sensitive to climatic conditions and conservation agriculture may be the only answer to combat the negative impact of climate change.

Predominantly, an agrarian society is mostly dependent on the farm sector. Agriculture plays an important role in Indian economy notwithstanding its shrinkage in share in the gross domestic product (GDP) of the country being 55.4% in 1950-’51 and 17.4% in 2018-’19 (Tripathy, 2019). Still the agriculture and allied sector is providing employment to 54 percent of the Indian population.

Introduction There is an emergence of a transformative paradigm of participatory approaches in various fields such as management, health care and education, community development, etc. Participatory approaches challenge the top-down approach used frequently for decision making (Narayanasamy, 2009). Participation is a dynamic process where two individuals exchange their ideas, thoughts, and knowledge for making proper decisions and solving the problems faced by local people. It is a process of empowering individuals that helps people make proper analysis, make their own decisions, and develop their confidence. It is successfully used in increasing self-help activities of local people and for proper implementation and evaluation of large scale projects. FAO has reported that through participatory programmes it is very easy to mobilise local knowledge for self-reliant development, reducing government assistance costs.

Thermochemical conversion is a process that uses heat to transform biomass and agricultural waste into energy and valuable byproducts. This approach involves the decomposition of organic materials under high temperatures, with or without the presence of oxygen, to produce fuels, chemicals, and thermal energy. The key thermochemical methods include combustion, pyrolysis, gasification, torrefaction, and hydrothermal liquefaction (HTL). In the pursuit of sustainable energy and environmental protection, biomass has emerged as a vital renewable resource. Thermochemical conversion technologies have gained prominence due to their high efficiency, rapid processing rates, and ability to handle a wide range of feedstocks—including lignocellulosic and low-moisture materials. Unlike biological processes, which depend on microbial activity and require longer processing times, thermochemical methods offer faster and scalable solutions suitable for industrial applications. Each thermochemical pathway offers unique advantages and outputs. Combustion is the most widely used method, involving the burning of biomass in the presence of excess oxygen to generate heat. This heat can be used directly or converted into electricity, making combustion especially common in rural and semi-urban settings. Other methods like pyrolysis and gasification produce intermediate products such as bio-oil, syngas, and biochar, which can be further refined or utilized as fuels and soil amendments. Hydrothermal liquefaction and torrefaction operate under specific conditions to produce high-energy-density products and improve biomass handling and storage characteristics. Overall, thermochemical conversion presents a robust strategy for managing agricultural waste while contributing to renewable energy generation and circular economy goals.
Pyrolysis, Gasification, and Hydrothermal Processing
Pyrolysis is a thermochemical process that involves the decomposition of biomass by heating it in the absence of oxygen, typically at temperatures between 300°C and 700°C. This process converts organic material into three main products:
1. Bio-oil (liquid)
2. Syngas (gas)
3. Biochar (solid)

7.1 INTRODUCTION

An understanding of the processes of oxidation and reduction in soils and the associated changes and practical implications requires a knowledge firstly of soil respiration and the movement of O₂ and CO₂ in soils, and secondly an appreciation of the significance of the changes which occur when, as a result of the use of all the O₂ in a given zone of the soil, respiration changes from aerobic to anaerobic. This results in marked changes in the biochemistry of the system. A basic knowledge is therefore needed of the microbiology and biochemistry of aerobic and anaerobic respiration and of the physics of gas movement, as well as of the chemistry of the system.

Sugarcane is the most important sugar crop contributing more than 62% of the world's sugar production. With increasing human population in the world, sugar requirement has also gone up. Molasses is an important by-product of sugar industry. It is used for the production of alcohol by the distillaries. Alcohol serves as a base material in pharmaceuticals and several other industries. The manufacture of gur (jaggery) and khandsari as alternative sweetening agents in India from sugarcane also plays considerable role in the Indian economy, particularly in rural area. Nearly 40 % of the sugarcane produced is utilised for manufacture of gur and khandsari. Sugarcane is bound to play a greater role in the Indian economy in the years to come by offering a stable income to the farmers by way of cane price, by providing employment to rural masses, by realising excise duty, Cane Cess/ purchase tax and foreign exchange earning.

Acreage and production

Sugarcane is grown in tropical and sub tropical regions. Brazil has largest area and production of sugarcane.India is second to Brazil in sugarcane production. It is followed by Cuba and China. Other important cane growing countries are Pakistan, Mexico, South Africa, Australia, Indonesia etc. So far, as average sugarcane productivity is concerned Peru ranks first in average sugarcane yield. To meet the sugar requirement of increasing population in future, it is essential that sugarcane production is stepped up. Since there is no scope at present to bring additional land under sugarcane, productivity of sugarcane, the targets have to be achieved only through increased productivity.

Abstract

Packaging industry is considered to be one of the world’s largest industrial sectors. In the past few years, food processing has undergone several paradigm changes with respect to production, distribution, storage, processing and retailing. This increasing dynamism in the food industry, while on one hand placing a lot of challenges on the packaging industries, is on the other hand opening up opportunities for entrepreneurs to foray into food processing and also packaging industries and develop appropriate solutions in response to the needs of the market and environment. This study aims at exploring the state of packaging industry and packaging technologies in developing countries, with special emphasis on India, against the backdrop of increasing concern for prevention of food losses and therefore highlighting the need for new innovative ideas for food packaging. The authors posit that customer awareness about safety of processed food has given rise to tremendous possibilities of entrepreneurship opportunities in the area of safe and hygiene packaging. However market preferences, state reputations and cost benefit analysis play major roles in packaging of processed food products.

Most of the horticultural produce is of perishable nature and must be protected from postharvest losses, which start from the field itself. Therefore, adoption of proper packing house operation plays a very crucial role in minimizing postharvest losses

Although, we have reached new heights in the production of fruits comparable to China, Brazil and USA and in vegetables to China, yet we are far behind in postharvest management of these perishables, primarily due to lack of appropriate infrastructure. Test studies conducted in Australia have indicated that the distribution cost of perishable horticultural produce is assumed 5 to 9 times, the production cost. Further, packaging accounted for 25-50% of the wholesale price of fruits and vegetables. In India, huge losses of horticultural produce (25-30%) after harvest are encountered mainly due to non-existence of packing house concept.

Packing house operations essentially begins with the use of proper field containers, field transport, temperature protection of harvest produce, sorting, sizing, grading, packing, which are essential preparatory steps to storage, shipment and subsequent marketing. Depending on the kind of produce, additional activities viz. degreening, curing, washing, ripening, waxing, precooling etc. are done. The sequence of activities varies with the crops. A considerable quantity of postharvest losses of horticultural produce could be minimized by adoption of various packing house operations described below:

The palmyrah palm exists both in the wild as well as in cultivation, ranging from sea level about 800 amsl. It is usually grown in seasonal tropical or subtropical climates on sandy soils. It is a very adaptable palm, however, growing well in dry areas and is quite drought resistant. It also grows in per-humid areas and survives water logging quite well. The worldwide distribution of natural and cultivated populations of the palmyrah shows that it occupies a band on either side of the equator and extends laterally over a considerable girth. The country wise distribution of the palms are Mauritania, Senegal, Mali, Gambia, Guinea-Bissau, Guinea, Ivory Coast, Upper Volta, Nigeria, Gaban, Congo, Sudan, Tanzania, Madagascar, Saudi Arabia, Iraq, Iran, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Myanmar (Lubeigt, 1977), Thailand, Cambodia, Malaysia and Indonesia (Kovoor, 1983). In India, the palms are wide spread in Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, Odisha, Madhya Pradesh, Bihar and West Bengal.  Isolated patches are also seen in Assam, Gujarat and Uttar Pradesh (Anonymous, 1948). The palmyrah is considered as a slow grower and the growth rate decreases in regions of higher altitude (Tjitrosoepomo and Pudjoarinto, 1982).

Soils become acidic due to natural  and artificial (anthropogenic) reasons. The natural reasons include their origin from acidic parent materials namely granite, rhyolite, pegmatite and dacite etc. and areas under high rainfall  (rainfall  exceeding evapotranspiration) removing  basic cations through leaching and erosion particularly in coarse textured soils with undulated, hilly and sloping topography. Under natural condition, accumulation of organic matter and its decomposition also releases organic acids into the soil system, turning soils  acidic. The anthropogenic factors    responsible for turning soils  acidic,  are (i) removal of basic cations through crop cultivation, (ii) continuous use of acid forming fertilizers and (iii) acid rain in industrial areas.