eChapters

Introduction

What is community development?

Community development refers to the process of bringing community people together after identifying issues related to them and taking a collective action. Community development empowers residents and builds stronger, more integrated communities. Community development is an all-encompassing approach based on the ideas of empowerment, human rights, inclusiveness, social justice, self-determination, and collective action (Kenny, 2007).

Meaning and Definitions

Agricultural journalism refers to the specialized field of journalism focused on reporting, analyzing, and disseminating information related to agriculture, farming, rural development, and related topics. It plays a crucial role in educating and informing the public, policymakers, and stakeholders about the agricultural sector, its challenges, innovations, and contributions to society.

Here are a few definitions of agricultural journalism.

Bennett’s Hierarchy

To set the scene for this we head back to the 1970s when Claude Bennett worked as a specialist in evaluation with the extension service. He wanted to make sure that extension was collecting information that was able to illustrate the effectiveness of extension, and help extension improve its services to clients. So, he developed seven categories of criteria for evaluating extension programmes based on what he called a ‘seven link chain of events. He put these into a hierarchy literally in his article describing this-as a diagram of seven steps.

Logical Framework Approach (LFA) Background and Description, Variation of LFA

Definition The Logical Framework Approach or LFA is a systematic and analytical process for objectives-oriented project planning and management

Background: The Logical Framework Approach (LFA) was developed for USAID in the 1960s. Since then, it has been adopted and adapted by many other international development organisations. Among them was the German agency GTZ, which derived its Goal-Oriented Project Planning (ZOPP) from it.

Indicators for Impact Assessment-meaning and Concept

Indicators for impact assessment: Indicators are common tools to determine the performance and then the result of the technology/extension/communication interventions. They measure the accomplishment of the project’s goals and targets. Criteria of indicators should be defined during the formulation stage, but they often need to be specified in greater detail during implementation. The indicators should measure intangible and non-tangible changes, particularly in projects that value factors such as personal and social development.

SWOT Analysis-Concept

Concept of SWOT

The concept of SWOT surfaced in 1960 as, management tool indicating four dimensions of strength, weakness, opportunity and threat and is widely used in business organizations. It’s use is very common in judging the prospectus of any organization particularly rural projects. It’s four attributes have wider applicability to decide whether to move ahead or not.

Origin of SWOT

1.1 Introduction

In the contemporary context, women's empowerment in rural India holds immense significance. These women fulfil critical roles as farmers, wage earners, and entrepreneurs, all while managing family responsibilities such as providing food and caring for children and older people. Despite their vital contributions, rural women face entrenched challenges, including gender based discrimination, societal norms, and unequal access to education, healthcare, property, and financial services. The burden of unpaid work, particularly prevalent in economically disadvantaged households, further compounds these obstacles. Notably, women from indigenous and grassroots communities contribute significantly to their communities’ livelihoods and serve as custodians of traditional knowledge essential for cultural preservation.

11.1 Introduction

Gendered Advancements utilize strategies of sex and intersectional investigation to form modern information. It looks to saddle the inventive control of this sort of examination for advancement and revelation. The agent's address is, do considering these components include important measurements to investigate? Do they take research in unused bearings? To reply to these questions, Gendered Developments creates down-to-earth strategies of sex, sexual orientation, and intersectional examination for researchers and gives case ponders as concrete outlines of how this sort of investigation leads to revelation and advancement.

Training plays a vital role in enhancing the capabilities of individuals to perform their roles effectively. In the context of leadership development, training aims to equip potential leaders with the necessary skills, knowledge, and attitudes to excel in their roles. This paper examines the objectives of leadership training and the methods by which these objectives can be achieved.

Meaning of Training

The term ‘training’ refers to a structured process designed to improve an individual’s ability to fulfill their responsibilities. It involves imparting knowledge, developing skills, and shaping attitudes to enhance professional competence. For potential leaders identified through various selection methods, training serves as a means to cultivate essential leadership traits that may be lacking initially.

Teaching

Extension teaching denotes a structured process aimed at fostering the learning experience. This process encompasses the facilitation of activities, provision of materials, and offering guidance necessary for the learner. In essence, it orchestrates scenarios wherein the subjects to be assimilated are brought to the learners’ attention, fostering their interest, engendering desire, instilling conviction, prompting action, and ensuring satisfaction.

Characteristics of Teaching

1. The quintessential objective of teaching transcends mere dissemination of information; rather, it endeavors to effect transformative changes in behavior.

2. Teaching is deemed efficacious only when learning is effectively acquired by the learner.

3. Teaching, analogously, is akin to illuminating a lamp rather than merely f illing a receptacle.

4. Teaching is a deliberate, purposeful endeavor, not a haphazard undertaking.

5. Effective teaching is methodically executed according to predetermined designs rather than being subject to inadvertent deviations.

6. Proficient teaching necessitates meticulous planning encompassing content, procedures, methods, and techniques.

7. Superlative teaching fundamentally hinges upon adept communication, which, in turn, demands empathetic sharing and lucid exposition.

Introduction

The term “Remote Sensing” was coined in 1950s by Ms. Evelyn Pruitt, a geographer with the U.S. Office of Naval Research, and the term is now commonly used to describe as the science and art of identifying, observing, and measuring an object on the earth surface, without having any direct contact. This process involves the detection and measurement of radiation of different wavelengths reflected or emitted from distant objects or materials through which they may be identified and categorized by class/type, substance, and spatial distribution (National Aeronautics and Space Administration—NASA). Remote sensing technology has been widely applied in various applications such as water resources, agriculture, geological studies, forestry, land use, resource exploration, etc.

Elements of Remote Sensing

The remote sensing process involves an interaction between the incident radiation and the targets of interest, exemplified by the use of imaging systems in which the following seven elements are involved; however, remote sensing also involves sensing of emitted energy and using non-imaging sensors

Introduction

Rainfall is one of the climatic variables that varies very highly spatially and temporally. Understanding this micro-level variation is a crucial indicator for planning future water requirements and preparing for management strategies. Numerous researchers have delved into the distribution, variability, and trends of rainfall across diverse spatial scales, ranging from global to regional and basin levels. Nair et al. (2014) analyzed the rainfall trend and seasonality index for Kerala state in India over the last 100 years. The rainfall trend was found to be decreasing significantly in almost all the regions of the state. Nischitha et al. (2013) provide insights into the spatial and temporal variability of daily monsoon rainfall in the Tunga and Bhadra River basins in Karnataka state. Paradkar et al. (2019) evaluated the pattern of weekly rainfall by using statistical parameters such as mean, standard deviation, skewness, and kurtosis for five stations in Pratapgarh district.

Geographical Information System (GIS) proved to be an effective tool in handling information and analyzing rainfall patterns, providing visual representations, and facilitating the decision-making process (Kadir et al. (2016) and Rao et al. (2017)). Anand et al. (2020) analyzed the long-term spatial and temporal trends of rainfall in the Lower Bhavani basin in Tamil Nadu, India using GIS and statistical methods. Earls et al. (2007) compared different interpolation methods such as Inverse Distance Weighting, Spline, and Kriging (ordinary and universal) to generate a 30 m representation of the rainfall data. Spatial interpolation techniques perform differently and their evaluation should not rely solely on quantitative assessment. Wu & Hung (2016) compared the performance of three spatial interpolation techniques i.e., IDW, kriging, and spline using quantitative assessment, 2D visualization, and 3D visualization. IDW and kriging performed similarly in terms of quantitative assessment, while spline performed worse. IDW and spline performed similarly in 2D visualization, while kriging showed different behavior. Kriging was observed to be an inexact interpolation in 3D visualization, while spline tended to create extreme values along the edges of the study area. Some studies discovered that the accuracy of Kriging in the study area is higher than that of IDW or Thiessen interpolations (Earls et al. 2007; Song et al. 2008; Chen et al. 2010). GIS applications have the capability to integrate spatial data and non-spatial data like rainfall and to visualize, model, and analyze how rainfall distribution varies across space and over time, providing insights into climate change, water resource management, agricultural planning, and disaster management. The present study aims to analyze annual rainfall data pertaining to Kerala state in the GIS environment.

Introduction

Agriculture is the back bone of Indian economy. About 18.8 percent (2021-22) of the national income originates from the agriculture sector. Approximately 60 percent of India’s population is directly or indirectly dependent on agriculture for livelihood. A large number of important industries like jute, textiles, edible oils, tobacco, sugar etc. receive the raw materials produced by agriculture sector. India occupies second position in the production of fruits and vegetables in the world after China (National Horticulture Database 2019 2020) It is grown almost in all the states of the country.

Cauliflower (Brassica oleracea L. var. botrytis) like all other Brassicaceae family crops has descended through introgression, mutation, human selection and adaptation from a single wild predecessor Brassica oleracea L. var. sylvestris which is still found growing in western and southern Europe and North Africa. The name cauliflower consists of two Latin words namely ‘caulis’ means cabbage and ‘floris’ means flower. It is grown throughout the country for its highly suppressed ‘prefloral fleshy apical meristem’ called “Curd” which is used as vegetable, soup and for pickling (Choudhury, 2006). Cauliflower is the pride of cole crops because of its good taste, flavour and nutritional value. It contains good amount of vitamins like vitamin A, vitamin C and fair amount of proteins and fibers. The cauliflower is also a good source of minerals like Ca, Mg, P, Fe, Na, and S.

Introduction

The most significant commercially grown fruit crop in the country is the mango (Mangifera indica L.), which belongs to the Anacardiaceae family. It’s known as the “king of fruits.” Mango cultivars can be found in the greatest variety in India. Mango farming is thought to have begun in South East Asia. Since about 6,000 years ago, mango has been grown in south Asia.Mango is native to South Asia, from where it has been distributed worldwide to become one of the most cultivated fruits in the tropics.

The major mango-growing states are Andhra Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Karnataka, Bihar, Gujarat and Tamil Nadu. Andhra Pradesh rank 1st in area, whereas Uttar Pradesh rank 1st in production and productivity. Andhra Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Karnataka, Maharashtra, West Bengal and Gujarat together contribute for about 82% of the total production in India.

India to become the second largest fruit producer in the world, after china, with a production of 102481 thousands metric tonnes of fruits from an area of 6930 thousands hectares in 2020-21.The fruit is grown in India, the total area under mango cultivation was 2317 thousand hectare with an annual production of 20386 thousand metric tonnes.(NHB 2020-21).

Mango is well adopted in tropical and sub-tropical climates but it can be grown up to 1,100 meters above sea-level. There should not be humidity, rain or frost during flowering. The temperature between 24 and 270C is ideal for its cultivation. Higher temperature during fruit development and maturity gives better quality fruits. The areas expressed frequent showers and high humidity is prone to many pests and diseases. Thus it can grow best in regions with a rainfall between 25cm and 250 cm. Regions having bright sunny days and moderate humidity during flowering is ideal for mango growing.The farmers 92.20 per cent had problems of pests in their mango trees. The most common pests were the mango seed weevil 48.10 per cent, fruit fly 36.40 per cent, trips 1.30 per cent, aphids 1.30 per cent and the most common diseases were the powdery mildew 46.80 per cent, anthracnose 18.20 per cent and scab 2.60 per cent (Gitonga,2010).

Introduction

NITI Policy Paper No.1/20017 reveals details of the concept and time frame as how to double the income of the farmers. The policy paper emphasizes in increase in agriculture productivity, improvement in total factor productivity, diversification towards high value crop, and increase in crop intensity, increasing terms of trade for farmers and shifting cultivators to non-farm and subsidiary activities. The well thought and planned program for doubling the income of the farmers reflecting dream or reality. We have farmers of different types like, small. Marginal and large farmers, resource rich and resource poor farmers, farmers of irrigated and non-irrigated zones, tribal and non-tribal farmers , trained and untrained farmers and progressive and non-progressive farmers. The farmers and their economic structure are quite different from place to place even within district. NSSO data on consumption expenditure survey (2011-12) reveal that more than one-fifth of households with self employment in agriculture and their principal occupation were having income less the poverty line.

Milk Production Scenario

Milk is primary source of protein and lactoseDairy farming is considered to be a whole environment of reciprocal relations and dependency reproduction and protection of social values. In worldwise dairy cows count up to 264 millions producing 600 million tones of milk every year. The global average for milk production is approximately 2200 litters/cow. Cattle population of world is 1009.69 millions heads (FAO, 2019) and highest milk producing countries are India, USA, China, Pakistan and Brazil. In case of consumption of milk India tops in the world followed by EU, USA and China. The per capita consumption of milk is highest in the country of Belarus followed by Ukraine and New Zealand. India is ranked 7th in the world in this respect. In India total cattle population is 306.70 millions. The state of Odisha constitutes 1.19% of the total cattle population of India. The level of milk production of India is reported to be 198.2 metric million tones. The per capita availability of milk in India is 427 gms/day (2021) and highest being in Punjab followed by Rajasthan. In case of Odisha the per capita milk availability is 143 gms and in milk production the district Cuttack top the list followed by Ganjam and Jagatsinghpur.

Introduction

In view of the present Indian agriculture scenario, farmer producers organisations (FPOs) are emerged as a most appropriate institutional form to mobilize small and marginal farmers ,improved their access to technology, inputs and markets. As per the report of National Council on Farmers, these organisations are mainly promoted to combine the advantages of decentralized production and centralized services, post harvest management, value addition and marketing. (NCF,2004). In order to meet the dream of Atmanirbhar Bharat and to make farmers atmanirbhar, Farmer Producers’ Organizations (FPOs) is an appropriate form to mobilize them. Recently Government of India has announced a budgetary provision of 4496.00 crore for five years for promotion of 10,000 FPOs.(Cabinet Committee on Economic Affairs,CCEA2020)

Also to improve agricultural productivity and income of the farmers, it is necessary to develop an entrepreneurial culture among the member farmers of an organisation. To make this organisational approach more successful, member farmers need to develop planning ability, decision making abilitiy, managerial qualities ,scientific attitude, organisational skills, participatory skills etc. The member farmers as an agripreneur should possess knowledge about improved production techniques, markets, consumer preferences , schemes, credit availability, policy advocacy to enterprise effectively under FPO.

Introduction

Novel Corona Virus 2019 (COVID 19) has impacted the human race very badly than any other disease in twenty first century. Almost every country on this planet was affected by this virus. The condition is more severe in developed countries.

So when it All Started?

There were reports that the medical professionals of Wuhan in China informed the government that there is some mysterious pneumonia like disease which is spreading very fast and affected the doctors and other paramedical staff who are attending the patients. When the situation became serious it was declared as outbreak of epidemic and first case of COVID 19 was declared in Wuhan China on 31st December 2019. Wuhan is one of the main business centres of china and there was regular movement of domestic and international visitors to that place. Till the problem was identified and communicated to other agencies, the spread of virus was already there in other parts of china and world specially Europe and USA.

World Health Organisation (WHO) declared COVID 19 as pandemic on 11 February 2020. Countries like USA criticized WHO for delay in identifying the disease and declaring it a pandemic.The damage was already done due to its spread in other countries. In India first reported case of COVID 19 was on 30th January at Kerala. However, considering the possible danger of this disease, Indian Government took primitive measure to contain the spread of Virus and announced Nationwide Lockdown 1.0 on 23rdMarch 2020. Similarly, Lockdown 2.0, 3.0, 4.0 were announced on 14 April, 3rd May and 17th may respectively.

Introduction

India is bestowed with a lot of potentials to produce a variety of organic products due to its diversified agro-climatic regions and this is very true in case of Dehradun district of Uttarakhand. It offers a variety of geographic locations suitable for cultivating various food crops such as: fruits, vegetables, food grains etc. Globally, organic farming is cultivated in an area of 57.80 million ha. However, India accounts for just 2.59% of the area. The organic farming is followed in India in almost all the regions with three states Madhya Pradesh (34.34%), Maharashtra (13.19%) and Rajasthan (11.67%) accounting for about 59% of the total organic area of the country. The cultivated land under certification has substantially increased from 1.74 lakh ha in the year 2005-06 to 1.78 million ha in the year 2017-188 (https://www.researchgate. net/publication/338209816_Impact_of_farmer_producer_organization_on_ organic_chilli_production_in_Telangana_India) Agriculture and its allied sectors are the largest source of livelihoods in India. However, India still has many growing concerns. As the Indian economy has diversified and grown, agriculture’s contribution to GDP has steadily declined from 1951 to 2011. (Source: http://www.fao.org/india/fao-in-india/india-at-a-glance/). One of the main reasons is due to the lack of competence in Indian farmers for selling the crop in remunerative prices in the market. Some of the critical constraints and bottlenecks are lack of infrastructure for storage, transportation, quality control, packaging, price risk management, cool chains, market led extension, and framework for promotion of contract farming (Gohain, 2018). Realizing these issues Government of India under the Department of Agriculture and Cooperation identified Farmer Producer Organization (FPO) as the most appropriate institutional form to mobilize farmers and build their capacity to collectively leverage their production and marketing strength(Ministry of Agriculture, 2013).For analyzing the potential, importance and contribution of FPO in the agriculture sector, the present study aims to discuss the role of FPO in uplifting small and marginal farmers and its impact on the basis of the project undertaken by Silgur Bizat SwayattSahkarita FPO in Dehradun district of Uttarakhand.

Introduction

India has been advancing excessively in terms of workforce engagement as a lot of women have started seeking space in the business arena. The new age has given way to a new trend of entrepreneurshipwhich is flourishing without the quantification of gender. Needless to say, India has been dealing with a very bad history of patriarchal class arrogance and work division that cannot fully provide all the freedom to women who want to prosper in their professional lives.

The female entrepreneurs have to undergo a lot of obstacles right from the initiation of the idea till the plan operates. Sometimes, the existence as a women itself comes with a baggage of responsibilities. Indian women are bound to fulfill their responsibilities towards their family, community and work, balancing everything equally and in an efficient manner.

The conventionalism, ethnicity, social and cultural principles, parenthood, the tag of feeblest sex and insecurity curb the confidence of women in comparison to their male counterparts. Even though there have been considerable changes found in the women dwelling in urban areas, the rural women still have numerous hindrances blocking their path. The perceptive of the opponent sex is irrational in rural areas due to the lack of education and it becomes hard for the women to resist men in such cases.

The Indian customary draws a thin line between the capability and responsibility allotted to different gendersMohsen B., and Zouari S. (2014). It has even threatened the employment chances of females in the traditional and eccentric sphere of fiscal exercises. The present scenario has not broken the undeterred confidence of women who sought to make a career in business, since the last decade. With the alteration in technology, globalization and rivalry accentuation has made the operation of business more multifaceted and vibrant.

Organizational communication can be defined as the process of the flow (Transmission and Reception) of goal oriented messages between sources, in a pattern and through a medium or media. And organizational communication is the study of how people communicate within an organizational context, or the influence of, or interaction with organizational structures in communicating / organizing.

An additional elements in organizational communication (not present in interpersonal communication) is the flow pattern of messages. Thus here are 6 elements in organizational communication.

1. The transmitting source

2. The receiving source

3. Source (the target)

4. The transmitted message

5. The goal of the message

6. The medium or media and the flow pattern (which is called network). The transmitting and receiving sources are the people sending and receiving the message.

In Individual Contact Method, the extension agent engages with individuals on a one-on-one basis, ensuring personalized interaction with each person. This method is employed when the target audience is limited in number, geographically proximate to the communicator, and ample time is allocated for effective communication.

Farm and Home Visit

This method entails direct, face-to-face interactions between extension agents and farmers, typically conducted either on the farm or at the farmer's residence. Its objectives include providing firsthand information on agricultural and household matters, assisting farmers in problem-solving, and aiding in their livelihood sustainability.

Techniques

• Planning and Preparation:

• Identify target audience and topics of discussion.

• Gather relevant materials and publications.

• Schedule visits efficiently and provide advance notice to farmers.

The digital revolution has brought profound changes to numerous industries, and agriculture is no exception. Cyber Extension, which leverages Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs), plays a pivotal role in providing extension services and disseminating vital agricultural information to farmers. This discussion will explore the intricacies of Cyber Extension, highlighting its significance, applications, and impact on modern agricultural practices.

Transformation of Extension Services

• Traditional extension services relied on direct interactions between extension agents and farmers. While these face-to-face meetings were effective, they often struggled with challenges such as limited reach, high operational costs, and scalability issues.

• The introduction of ICTs has revolutionized extension services, giving rise to the concept of Cyber Extension.

Core Elements of Cyber Extension

• Digital Platforms: Cyber Extension leverages a variety of digital platforms, including websites, mobile apps, social media, and online forums, to share agricultural knowledge and engage with farmers.

• Remote Sensing and GIS: Advanced technologies like remote sensing and Geographic Information Systems (GIS) provide farmers with real time information on weather conditions, soil moisture levels, crop health, and pest infestations.

• ICT Devices: Devices such as mobile phones and tablets allow farmers to access extension services, receive advisory messages, and join virtual training sessions from any location at any time.

• Mobile Technology: Mobile phones and text messaging services deliver crucial information directly to farmers, including advisory messages, weather alerts, market prices, and other pertinent updates.

• E-Learning: Cyber Extension supports e-learning through modules, webinars, and online courses, educating farmers on best practices, crop management techniques, and market trends.

• Decision Support Systems: Tools and expert systems assist farmers in making informed choices regarding crop selection, irrigation schedules, fertilizer use, and pest management strategies.

Research methodology is a detailed plan of investigation and the blue print of procedure for carrying out the research. In this chapter, discussion on the methodology has been made to understand the concepts, methods and techniques, which are utilized to design the study, collect information, analyzing data and interpreting the findings for revelation of truth and formulation of theories. The entire chapter has been broken up under following sub-heads for easy understanding:

1. Locale of research

2. Sampling design

3. Pilot study

4. Variables and their measurements

5. Methods of data collection

6. Statistical tools used for analysis of data

Locale of Research

The present study has been conducted in a INDIA-BANGLADESH cross border village named Radhikapur in the state West Bengal. Villages from Kaliyaganj block in Uttar Dinajpur District.

The characters and the factors under study have been well discernible to this area

• The researcher’s close familiarity with respect to area, people, officials and local dialects

• The highly cooperative and responsive respondents

• The profuse scope to get relevant information regarding entrepreneurship communication behavior, economical communication, information seeking & responding behavior, information flow in & flow out etc.

• The locale is located at the terminal point & beside the INDIA BANGLADESH border, so there is some cross border impact also.

In any social science research, it is hardly possible to conceptualize and perceive the data and interpret the data more accurately until and unless a clear understanding of the characteristics in the area and attitude or the behavior of people is at commend of the interpreter who intends to unveil an understanding of the implication and behavioral complexes of the individual who live in the area under reference and form a representative part of the larger community. The socio-demographic background of the local people in a rural setting has been critically administered in this section. A research setting is a surrounding in which input and elements of research are contextually imbibed, interactive and mutually contributive to the system performance. Research setting is immensely important in the sense because it is characterizing and influencing the interplays of different factors and components.

The physical, social, or experimental context in which research is carried out is referred to as the research setting. This context must be accurately described in a study publication because it may have a significant impact on the findings and how they are interpreted. For instance, in a paper describing the social behavior of chimpanzees, the authors may need to provide the following information about the research environment: where the chimpanzees were observed (in the wild or in captivity), the number of chimpanzees observed, and whether they belonged to the same social group, the geographic location, the time of study, the season/weather conditions, the availability of resources like food/water/shelter, and the presence of environmental factor.

Introduction

Gender is a topic that cuts across all subjects and should be considered. The generational dimensions of rural and agricultural growth, whether we’re talking about kids, teenagers, or the elderly, have also grown in importance in recent years. Therefore, it is not surprising that a specific focus should be given on the issues of gender and youth and their relevance to the growth of agriculture. However, it is our custom to start with a few points to lay a foundation of thoughts. Nations Like India where majority of farmers practise subsistence agriculture, rural development is the cornerstone of agricultural development. According to the type of the problem in each country, an assessment of the present global response to the food crisis has indicated that various strategies are being implemented with varying degrees of success and failure. Different tactics are being used to shield the underprivileged from the rise in price shocks. Investment in the agricultural sector is consequently important for rural development and a rise in agricultural output. The contribution of women is also essential to the overall success of initiatives aimed at rural development to boost agricultural production in India. In sub-Saharan Africa, Women engage in more agricultural work than men do and supply the bulk of the labour for a variety of agricultural tasks. Women make up around 90% of the workers directly involved in producing arable crops (Ogunlela and Aisha, 2009). Therefore, rural development will occur when different pertinent institutions are given attention, including cooperative societies, the system of land tenure, banks and credit, the creation of sustainable local governments, educational institutions, medical institutions, and agricultural marketing outlets.

Introduction

Krishi Vigyan Kendras (KVKs) have marked their presence across India by executing various scientific as well as institutional reforms for the agrarian mass of our country. Right from its beginning in 1970s, farmers were actively trained for adopting different innovative tools and methods and were also provided with proper assistance in implementing them. The farmers were adapted to technical know-how of an introduced technology and produced significant results in the real f ield conditions.

KVKs provided proper training programmes on need-based curriculum in order to cater to the local and regional needs. This has also led to need assessment of various training needs and efficacies to make improvement in policies and future interventions. KVK can be instrumental in nurturing the process of gender empowerment by inviting and involving the farm women in the process of technological adaptation, adoption and socialization. There are methodological innovations as to how we can involve the farm women by employing and applying gender-sensitive KVK technologies as suitable for their job environment and climate. Especially in areas of value addition, rural crafts, women crafts, f ishery, horticulture and micro-finance, their roles are becoming more prominent and decisive. This is positive achievement in making them free from gender discrimination and impoverishment.

The knowledge score gained by respondents after training was more satisfactory in all aspects (58.33% had medium and 48.67% had high level of knowledge). The socio-economic factors of the participants viz. Education level played a significant positive role on the knowledge gain of the participants. (Upamanya et.al., 2020) Most of the farmers, i.e., 66.67 per cent with theoretical knowledge suggested that more field visits can be arranged, 63.33 per cent of the respondents suggested the training should be conducted in their own villages because the farm women cannot able to come to KVK by leaving their children and their regular household work and around sixty per cent (60.83 per cent) of the respondents suggested that organizing continuous and frequent training programmes for effective participation and retention of knowledge. (Chakkaravarthy and Balakrishnan, 2020)

In a country like India where the economy is dominant by agriculture and its allied sectors, nearly 75% of women are engaged in agriculture in comparison with their male counterparts. Among rural female workers, 50% comprises of agricultural laborer and 37% are cultivators. Not only this, around 70% of total farm work is performed by women folk. Majority of agricultural works are done by women farmers (FAO, 2011) and thus empowering them will have far-reaching effect on agricultural development. They usually operate multiple livelihood f ields, including farming, animal husbandry, and marketing along with doing the household chores and are closely involved in social issues. Among these activities when we look specifically into the agricultural tasks, it is very clear that approximately 70–80% of women are participating in all agriculture activities from raising seedlings, weeding, harvesting and, processing and value addition activities and sometimes their involvement extends to marketing their product. To compete in this fast-growing industry with others, the rural women need to be up-to-date with new technologies to foster the reach of innovations to the farm women. Training is one of the most important means by which farmers and rural women can upgrade their professional and technical skillset. This is an essential component in the area of agriculture where technology is changing day by day and the knowledge of the farming community including women needs to be upgraded at a comparatively quicker pace.

1. Introduction

Over the years, Agriculture Extension has been at the fore front within the delivery of adequate data to the farming community not just for increasing productivity however additionally to reinforce their standard of living. Keeping in-sight of the demand for agricultural growth, evolutionary modifications had been made in transfer of technology to succeed in the farming community effectively. The Information and Communication Technology (ICT) is one among the required counterparts which made the agriculture extension more realistic and quite interesting.

Developing nations like India are though capable to get self-sufficiency in food production after green revolution however they’re in risk to keep this self sufficiency as they are possibly to face food shortage in near future due to rapid population growth. Thus, the demand of continuous increasing population is often fulfilled with the assistance of ICT as a tool of revamping extension network of the country. ICT is an emerging tool for development of farming communities.

Information and communication technologies have unique feature that provide opportunities to harness them in ways which are extraordinary from traditional media. ICT provides two-way communication between rural communities and development organizations. ICTs also improves the capacity to look for information and increase the number of information available, provide quality information, reduces uncertainty and enhance market participation.

Introduction

The concept of communication for development emerged with the Modernization theory, which developed its roots after World War II. Wilbur Schramm and Daniel Lerner, the two major proponents of this theory opined that the major obstacle to development was the psychology of the undeveloped citizens. The communication models under modernization paradigm observed communication process as the transfer of message from sender to receiver (Lasswell, 1948). It was found that communication theories like two step-flow, diffusion theory, or the early extension approaches were quite harmonious with the top-down modernization theory. After the Modernization paradigm, an another theory of communication for development emerged named as Dependency theory. Dependency theorist like Jean Servaes (1996) criticized the broadcasting and other mass-media systems as they tended to support modernization and were anti-development; also they were inclined to promote the political agenda. Solution to underdevelopment of third world countries require major changes in media structure that were dominated by commercial principles & foreign interests into media structures which are self-reliant and community oriented (Servaes, 2002). In 1970s scholars such as Paulo Freire and Nora C. Quebral started pleading in favour of bottom up development theories which led to evolution of a new development paradigm called the multiplicity paradigm. This paradigm conceptualised the basic idea that development is integral, multidimensional and dialectic process which can differ from one society to another (Okigbo and Eribo, 2004). Multiplicity paradigm led to emergence of a new form of communication called participatory communication.

Introduction

India is an agriculture-based country and it contributes most to the economy of the country. Different types of crops are cultivated in a wide range in different ecological regions based on different seasons. So, crop residue is also generated in an extended way by cultivation (Devi et. al 2017). Crop residue is the left over part of the crop after harvesting. In India, crop residue generates around 600 Mt and from which cereals are 70%, fibres 13%, oilseeds 6%, pulses 3%, sugarcane 2%, and others 6% (Jain et al., 2014). Corn production has increased more than 15 times from 1950-51 to 2016-2017. Rice, wheat, millet, barley, and maize are important cereal crops in Uttar Pradesh (Roy and Ahmad, 2015). Traditionally, Crop residue was used as cattle feed, animal bedding, cooking fuel, organic manure, etc. and some residues were used in making handicraft products by rural women. but still, a huge amount of residue is left without management and farmers have no option left except to burn it. About 90 to 140 Mt of crop residue burning in the field or households as fuels (Jain et al., 2014). In the process of harvesting and threshing, residues are left behind in the f ield. Farmers need to clear their fields early for the planting of the next crop so they do have not enough time and it is tough to clear the field at that time. Therefore, the farmers opt for the burning of residue in harvested fields due to a lack of access to user-friendly, cost- and time-effective options. The burning of crop residue creates many issues and effects on the environment and health badly. In a report of NAAS in 2017, it was estimated that in November 2016 at the period of rice residue burning, the NASA satellite images showed the intensity of rice residue burning in Punjab, Haryana, Western Uttar Pradesh, and Uttarakhand was very high. It is doing an additional job of increasing air pollution with vehicles, chimneys, industries, etc. Crop residues release many gases by burning them and these gases are contributing to global warming.

Introduction

Self Help Group is a voluntary and self managed group of poor people, who come together to promote savings among themselves and pool savings for activities benefiting either individuals or communities economically. Empowerment of women has now become a key issue in the Government’s Five year plans by organizing women into Self Help Groups to make the beginning of a major process of empowering women. 320 million people, out of our 1.1 billion, are steeped in abject poverty and due to their asset lessens it is difficult for them to access any kind of aid from banking / financial institutions and this state of the hopelessness and the constraints of an ineffective credit delivery system can be transcended by enhancing the self esteem and raising the feeling of human self worth. The SHGs approach is a reshaping initiative that enhances the livelihoods and ensures sustainability by enabling poor families to access effective economical and social development leading to empowerment.

In Tripura SHG’s has been introduced in the year 1999.The main objectives of this programme by mutual beneficial of social and economic activities through women mobilization. SHG’s are a way to involve rural women and men actively in the development process by means of increased income Agricultural situation of WTD differs to some extent from the other districts in regard to topography, soil, extent of rain-fall, variation in temperature and humidity which has resulted in difference in cropping pattern also from that of the other three districts. People mainly practice rice and vegetables cultivation. The plain land people also were satisfied to grow single crop preferably paddy without having any knowledge and experience of improved cultivation for growing multiple crops. Animal husbandry is another sector contributing to the economy of WTD. Cattle and poultry are the main livestock wealth of the district. (DRDA office, Agartala, 2010). Many Government and non-government organization now have come forward for helping poor communities and to energize their capacity in development activities of which Self Help Group (SHGs) is thought as the best means for improving their position in the society.

Introduction

Innovation as a new idea, method, or object may be developed by research or by a farmer. Diffusion is a special type of communication on innovations. The proper use of innovation is called adoption. Communication is different from diffusion in the sense that communication covers all types of messages whereas diffusion is concerned with a message of new ideas. The extension workers need to understand the meaning of diffusion, adoption processes, innovation, etc. by which farmers accept new ideas. Adoption is a sequence of thoughts and actions which an individual goes through before s/he finally adopts a new idea. The adoption process is a mental process for passing the new idea to final adoption. In the diffusion process, the new idea spreads from its source of invention or creation to its ultimate users or adopters. Perception is an activity through which an individual becomes aware of objects around oneself and of events taking place.

Elements in the Diffusion of Innovations

The four main elements in the diffusion of innovations are innovation, communication channels, time, and social systems.

The Innovation

Innovation is a new idea expressed in terms of knowledge, persuasion of decision for adoption. The perceived attributes of innovations are relative advantage, compatibility, complexity, trialability, and observability.

Relative advantage: The innovation should have a relative advantage over the existing ideas in terms of economic and social-prestige factors, convenience, and satisfaction. The advantage can be influenced by providing various incentives.

Compatibility: The innovation should be compatible with the socio-cultural values and beliefs of people.

1. Introduction

The present library system has been designated as a treasure of knowledge in virtual environment. The concept of modern library has been considered as the source of high level-information using web technology, digitization, networking,e-resources and multimedia. The rapid development of modern information and communication technologies and smart usage of computers in library and information system and services has given rise to new generation of libraries. The last two decades have radically transformed the library system with new avenues of information transfer in virtual world. An incredible amount of growth in increasing new interfaces have been developed utilising latest technologies to optimise the delivery of contents and services in the context of web environment. The emerging new vision of library interfaces has involved web technologies, digital collection of texts and images, documents, genealogy of records and other materials of importance for the user community. The major shift of new technology has developed the subscription of e-journals, e-books, and e-databases collection in libraries. Such library interface is compelled to provide equal access to the contents or these collection to all users irrespective of area or locality. Another remarkable trend in library technology field is the emergence of open-source software movement that enabled to transform the automation and digital library interface. Open Source Software efforts such as OAI, Grenstone, DSpace, Koha etc, have drastically transformed the library technology scenario in terms of sophistication and functionality. This article/ chapter is dealt with the state of digital library system with stages of generation of digital libraries and future directions.

1. Introduction

A public library is a repository of diversified material that serves as the primary hub for community information the spread. It provides fair access to a wide range of information and data, meeting the diverse demands of users. Services must be inclusive, with information appropriate for all age groups and the incorporation of both classic materials and contemporary technologies across many mediums. In 1987, the ILA defined the purpose of public libraries, stating that they should serve as independent training centers for community activities. Public libraries play a pivotal role in fostering community engagement, welcoming all members to participate in various programs. Initially established by the public, these libraries later received government funding for expansion and other requirements. The systematic development of India's public library system ensued after the establishment of the Raja Rammohan Roy Library Foundation (RRRLF) in 1972.

1. Introduction

Disasters are events that occur over a period and cause widespread destruction, suffering, or distress to everything they affect (Oxford English Dictionary, n.d.). The impact of a disaster may be confined to specific areas or widespread and could last for an extended duration, often requiring assistance from external sources to address the aftermath (International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies [IFRC], n.d.). These events can arise from naturally occurring phenomena, such as earthquakes, tornadoes, or floods, as well as man-made occurrences, including industrial accidents (e.g., accidental toxic spills or nuclear power plant events) or acts of terrorism (e.g., bombing or poisoning) (United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction [UNDRR], n.d.). Disasters typically result in significant harm to infrastructure, loss of life, displacement of people, and severe economic consequences.

1. Introduction

Information is necessary for the economic, social, and cultural development of individuals and communities, and libraries play a significant role in providing access to information, which is essential for this growth. These institutions function as centers of knowledge, offering a wide range of resources to their users, including books, journals, databases, and multimedia materials, in order to meet the varied requirements of their users.

In this day and age, the function of libraries has evolved beyond the confines of physical locations to encompass activities such as online platforms and digital collections. Because of the large amount of information that is accessible on the internet, people rely on libraries to help them navigate through this sea of data and locate sources that are credible and reliable.

In addition to the camera itself, there are several accessories that can enhance  your video recording experience. Here’s a list of common video camera  accessories:
1. Tripods
Purpose: Stabilize your camera for steady shots.
Types: Standard tripod, monopod, mini tripod, and fluid head tripod for  smooth panning.
2. External Microphones
Purpose: Improve audio quality compared to built-in microphones.
Types: Lavalier (clip-on), shotgun, and handheld microphones.
3. Lighting Equipment
Purpose: Enhance lighting conditions for better video quality.
Types: LED lights, softboxes, and ring lights.
4. Camera Bags
Purpose: Protect and carry your camera and accessories.
Types: Shoulder bags, backpacks, and hard cases.
5. Extra Batteries and Chargers
Purpose: Ensure you have enough power for extended shoots.
Types: Spare batteries, battery chargers, and portable power banks.
6. Memory Cards
Purpose: Store recorded video footage.
Types: SD cards, microSD cards, and CF cards depending on camera compatibility.

Composition is a fundamental element of cinematography, essential for creating engaging video content. When designing shots and angles, videographers must consider not only technical aspects like lighting and sound but also creative choices that set the mood. Video composition helps filmmakers craft a narrative, influencing how viewers engage with the story. Effective composition goes beyond just framing; it involves color grading and the strategic placement of elements within the frame, making it vital for captivating the audience.

Video Composition Tutorial

A tutorial from B&H Photo’s YouTube channel outlines five crucial rules of video composition that should not be broken. These rules serve as a foundation, providing structure and consistency to the creative process

An unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) is any aircraft or flying machine that operates without a human pilot. UAVs can be controlled autonomously or remotely by a human operator using onboard computers and robotic systems. In surveillance or military operations, UAVs are often part of an unmanned aircraft system (UAS). Drones, a common term for UAVs, have gained popularity for various applications such as photography, videography, surveying, inspection, and delivery.

The essential components of a drone include the frame, motors, propellers, battery, flight controller, and sensors. Let’s explore these components in detail:

1. Frame

2. Battery

3. Flight Controllers

4. Sensors

5. Motors and Propeller

Introduction

In agricultural extension and education, video production plays a pivotal role in disseminating information, training farmers, and promoting best practices. The effectiveness of these videos is often determined by the quality of their scripts. This chapter explores three primary types of video scripts: basic production scripts, storyboard scripts, and camera scripts. Each type fulfills a distinct role in the production process, and understanding their unique functions is crucial for creating engaging and informative content. By examining these script types, this chapter aims to provide a comprehensive guide to the scripting process, helping to enhance the quality and impact of educational and promotional videos.

Script

A script is the written content for visual stories, such as plays, television shows, or movies. While scripts often include stage directions and production notes for performers and crew, their primary focus is on the dialogue between characters. Scripts serve as a blueprint for the entire production, guiding actors and technical crew through their roles and responsibilities. For example, a script for a stage play will detail character interactions, emotional tone, and specific actions, ensuring that all elements of the performance align with the director’s vision.

In this unit, we will explore the essential skills necessary for presenting radio and television programs in a way that ensures they are engaging, effective, and successful in communication. It is widely recognized that even a program with strong content and a well-crafted script can fail to achieve the desired impact if it is not delivered in an appealing manner. We will analyze the key qualities of an effective presenter and examine the process of refining a script before it is presented on air, whether through a microphone or in front of a camera.

Presentation Techniques for Radio

The overall impact of a radio program is determined by the script, production quality, and the manner of presentation. While it can be argued that presentation and packaging fall under production quality, it is crucial to recognize that in an aural medium, the choice of words in the script is just as important as their delivery. Therefore, radio producers must be equally adept at presentation techniques, as these can significantly influence the success or failure of the entire production.

The economics of migration has drawn attention of many economists and social scientists over the years. Decision making in migration has certain inherent complexities as it takes into account the characteristics of both areas of origin and areas of destinations. Similarly it involves the status of agricultural productivity and efficiency, extant of urban informal sector along with various other amenities available in the destination urban areas. The subject of rural-urban migration and its inter-linkage with urban informal market and agricultural productivity have received considerable attention in theoretical framework as well as in empirical research. Among these vast literatures, the study has reviewed some of them and made a synoptic assessment on these issues in general. Moreover an attempt has been made to review the existing literature on rural-urban migration in West Bengal.

2.1 Migration Decision Making

Migration decision can be two types: individual decision making and family decision making. These two sets of migration decision involve distinctly different sets of factors. Stark (1991) has rightly pointed out that “….the family, should not be treated as if it were an individual”. So there are differences between individual migration decision and family migration decision. Migration decision depends on a host of factors, some are economic, some are demographic and some are sociological in nature. However, individual and family migration decisions are determined by two distinctly different sets of factors.

A thorough examination of relevant literature is crucial in any scientific investigation and research. Apart from identifying previous work conducted in the problem area or the specific field of study, the primary function of a literature review is to provide insights into the methods and procedures used, while also establishing a foundation for interpreting the findings. A literature review involves a comprehensive and critical assessment of prior research, offering a summary and overview of a particular research area. This allows readers to understand why the current research program is being pursued. A well-executed literature review delves into the reasons behind selecting a specific research question, integrating and evaluating previous studies, and demonstrating how they relate to the proposed research program. It is important to present all sides of the argument in a clear manner to avoid bias, while also highlighting areas of agreement and disagreement among the existing literature.

In this chapter, we have attempted to provide a concise overview of various studies and writings related to migration. This overview serves to enhance our understanding of the significance and purpose of our current research. Some relevant reviews have been categorized and presented under the following sub headings:

The research methodology is a comprehensive plan and guide that outlines the process of conducting a study. The purpose of this chapter is to provide readers with a clear understanding of the concepts, approaches, and techniques employed in designing a study, collecting data, analyzing it, and interpreting the findings to establish validity and develop theories. For better comprehension, the entire chapter has been divided into the following subsections:

i. Research location

ii. Sampling strategy

iii. Pilot study

iv. The variables and their measures

v. Data collecting strategies

The systematic identification, evaluation, and integration of the body of published work produced by researchers, scholars, and practitioners is achieved through a rigorous and repeatable method called the review of the literature. It acts as a comprehensive resource, incorporating the most recent information, important discoveries, and theoretical breakthroughs linked to a certain field. The literature review is a useful compilation of important discoveries as well as methodological and theoretical contributions within a certain topic that is frequently seen in academic and scholarly journals.

In all academic areas, the review of literature is a crucial component of research. Its main goal is to assess, evaluate, and make links between our findings and previous research on a particular subject of interest. In addition, the literature review acts as a point of reference and offers helpful insights in the following ways:

i. Approaches

ii. Methods

iii. Variables

Human migration involves the movement of people from one place to another with intentions of settling, permanently or temporarily, at a new geographical location. The movement often occurs over long distances and from one country to another, but internal migration, within a single country, is also possible; indeed, this is the dominant form of human migration globally. Migration is often associated with better human capital at both individual and household level, and with better access to migration networks. Age is also important for both work and non-work migration. People may migrate as individuals, in family units or in large groups. There are four major forms of migration: invasion, conquest, colonization and emigration/immigration.

Persons moving from their home due to forced displacement, such as a natural disaster or civil disturbance, may be described as displaced persons or, if remaining in the home country, internally-displaced persons. A person who seeks refuge in another country can, if the reason for Annual Net Migration Rate 2015–2020. Prediction by UN in 2019.leaving the home country is political, religious, or another form of persecution, make a formal application to that country where refuge is sought and is then usually described as an asylum seeker. If this application is successful this person's legal status becomes that of a refugee.

The deliberation on the methodology has been made to understand the concept, methods and techniques which are utilized to design the study, collection of information, analysis of data and interpretation of the findings for revelation of truths and formulation of theories. These chapter deals with the method and a procedure used in the study an consist of eight main parts-

A. Locale of research.

B. Pilot study.

C. Sampling Design.

D. Empirical measurement of the variables.

1. Introduction

Cattle are one of the important livestock species of the country which forms an integral part of Indian agriculture since ages. Human progress depends on the utilisation of animals and natural resources in a balanced way. Cow, in particular, is considered as a part of the family in India. Cattle have been of the utmost importance for the sustenance of agriculture, nutrition supply and religious practices in India. Frequent references on cattle farming are found in Indian mythological books and historical writings regarding their utilization in agriculture as draught power, milk production and source of manure. Approximately 200 million Indians are involved in livestock farming, including around 100 million dairy farmers. Roughly 80% of bovines in the country are low on productivity and are reared by small and marginal farmers. Most of the local cows are managed on a low input and low output system for production of milk for the household nutritional requirement and sale surplus milk to dairy co-operatives or local milk sellers. Poor genetic makeup of Indian livestock is the main reason for their lower productivity as compared to the recorded potential of animals in temperate climate. With the change in food consumption pattern due to urbanization, increase in health awareness, reduced requirement of draught animal power due to mechanisation, etc., the demand for milk and milk products have increased many folds.

A linear programming problem aims to maximize or minimize a linear function subject to the linear constraints. But in many cases, the objective function may not be linear or all/some of the constraints may not be linear or both the objective and the constraints may not be linear. Such an optimization problem is called a nonlinear programming problem (NLPP). In this chapter, we discuss about NLPP’s. Nonlinear programming is the process of solving an optimization problemdefined by a system of equalities and inequalities, collectively termed constraints, over a set of unknown real variables, along with an objective function to be maximized or minimized, where some of the constraints or the objective function are nonlinear. It is the sub-field of mathematical optimization that deals with problems that are not linear. A typical non-convex problem is that of optimizing transportation costs by selection from a set of transportation methods, one or more of which exhibit economies of scale, with various connectivity and capacity constraints. An example would be petroleum product transport given a selection or combination of pipeline, rail tanker, road tanker, river barge. Owing to economic batch size the cost functions may have discontinuities in addition to smooth changes. In experimental science, some simple data analysis (such as fitting a spectrum with a sum of peaks of known location and shape but unknown magnitude) can be done with linear methods, but in general these problems, also, are nonlinear.

Sex

Sex is the biological make-up of male and female human beings. It is biological difference between men and women. Sex is universal, permeant, Biological. John money draw the distinction between the biological differences and behavioural characteristics that differentiates male and Female. First person used Gender opposite to sex. Founder of Gender Identity clinic at John Hopkins University in the Baltimore in US in 1966.

Gender

First used by anna Oakley. It is neutral term, dynamic, change over time and place. It is a socially constructed roles and responsibilities assigned to men and women in a given society. It refers to socio-cultural differences between males and females. Gender determines what is expected, allowed and valued in a woman / man in different contexts. In simple words, gender refers to the set of relationships between men and women at a particular point of time in a given society

Gender Blindness

It is the failure to recognize that gender as an essential determinant of social outcomes impacting projects and policies. Gender-blind policy ignores the different situation, roles, needs and interests of women, men, girls and boys.