eChapters

The study is confined to tribal zone of Orissa, especially of Koraput district where tribes account for 49.69% of the district population. The sample SHG were selected from Sadar, Similiguda and Koraput blocks without any prejudice to their performance. At the outset, it is admitted that SHG has created a sensation among the tribes to look forward the development process. The present study ‘SHG in Techno-Economic Empowerment of Tribal Women’ has been conceived to find out inter-play of technological and economic variables that reflect in social status.

Membership status

SHG starts with the philosophy of micro-approach. Small sized group dynamics, available technology and economic opportunity linked with market structure are the perceived objectives to bring change in livelihood system. The study considered the age of SHG, present membership status, rate of discontinuance as the basic factors of SHG in tribal zone.

Motives of joining SHG

Sensitization for joining SHG does not alone help to achieve immediate result. Motives when combined with inspiration, an individual is tempted to act so also the case with sample SHG who expressed motives for joining SHG as follows.

Concept and Meaning of Empowerment Meaning and definition

Women empowerment has been widely recognized as an important goal in global development process. The term “empowerment” was coined in the second half of the seventeenth century (Oxford English Dictionary). It gained momentum in USA in 1960s when the activists of Black Panat Movement used the term ‘empowerment’ in the context of political mobilization. In 1980s the term was adopted by NGOs worldwide to signify an alternative development agenda for poverty alleviation based on principles of participation and self help. During this period, the participation and self help came to forefront. There after it has entered many fields of theory and practice. Since 1980s, the world has witnessed the concept, used to describe this phenomenon (empowerment).

The voiceless and powerless are the common elements that need the concept of empowerment in terms of socio-economic, technological, cultural and political development. In the context of power, empowerment depends on two things. These are: power can change and power can extend. The concept came to exist that power can change and power can extend giving the term ‘empowerment’ as the power is created in relationship, power and power relationship can certainly change. Therefore, empowerment simply is a process of change.

The study entitled “SHG in Techno Economic Empowerment of Tribal Women” was conducted on the following specific objectives.

Empowerment of women in relation to SHG (ii) Profile of SHG

Structure and functions of SHG

SWOT analysis of SHG

Constraints of SHG and suggestion

Case studies

It is an organized set up to provide micro credit to the rural women on the strength of the group savings without insisting on any collateral security for the purpose of encouraging them to enter in to entrepreneurial activities and for making them enterprising women (Gurumoorthy, 2000).

Puhanzhendi and Badatya (2002) find that the SHG programme has a positive social impact.

Rajamohan (2003) stated that SHG is a medium for the development of saving habit among the women.

Jeyasudha (2004) reported that eradication of poverty and the ushering in of speedy socioeconomic progress is the goal with which the developmental programmes are being implemented through a multipronged strategy, reaching out to the most disadvantaged sections of the society. She placed the concept of rural development at the top of agenda in national policies of developing countries of Asia, Africa and Latin America. The developed countries have also recognized this need and have directed their efforts towards meeting the basic needs of the poorest people in developing countries.

Introduction

India with exceeding population of 1027.01 million with 741 million living in rural areas is on the path of development. With 40% of population below poverty line, our country faces the problem of quality life. The lack of access to and control over resources is said to be the cause of poverty. The central aim of enhancing economic productivity of India is to improve the overall welfare of those residing under poverty line. To combat poverty, ‘self help promotion’ is of recent paradigm that has attracted attention of all sections of population. Now it is a matter of concern for all those social consciousness driven people who wants to vanish poverty through this concept known as Self Help Group.

As per the report of ILO, by the year 2050 about 33% of people in the developed countries and 19% in developing countries will be sixty years or older and most of them incidentally will be women. 2001 census reveals that unorganized labour account for more than 40% of the total work force and total employment in both sectors in our country is 397 crores. Out of the unorganized sector workers, 237 crores are employed in agriculture.

Women form half of our population. They have significant roles in overall development. Rural development concept in our country attaches more importance to women development. Through various projects and research, it has been recognized that group approach is only means of reaching disadvantaged people in our society within which women are included. Many countries in Asia have proved effectiveness of group approach in achieving development.

With increasing emphasis on development, quality life, livelihood, etc. group concept has to be worked out in development prospective. The advantages of group concept over individual approach are i) Democratizations ii) Visualization of common problem iii) Interaction to become homogeneous iv) Power to present problem before authorities v) Farming base for grass root level planning vi) Realization of one’s potentiality compared to others vii) Protection from risk or sharing of risk viii) Enabling to form acceptable rule and regulation and ix) feeling of empowerment.

This chapter deals with the maintenance, repair, safety and trouble shooting of agricultural implements, equipment and machinery.

Routine maintenance reduces repair bills and extends the life of equipment. Good maintenance practices are essential for efficient operation of all types of farm machineries. Effort spent in this area of farm management is more than repaid by the consistent, reliable operation of machinery, reduced fuel bills and extended life of equipment. Maintenance of farm machinery is complicated by the usage pattern of short spells of intense activity, followed by periods of non-use or storage.

During the “standing” or non-use periods chemical interactions between metals and fluids can cause more damage than normal wear and tear from active usage. This must be considered in planning machinery maintenance.

27.1. What?

Seed drills are designed to sow seeds at the recommended seed rate with precision and at the desired depth. Proper adjustments are made to the seed metering system to ensure efficient use of seed drills. This aspect is vital to have a good crop stand.

The seed size varies between crop and their varieties. In addition, the seed metering systems are based on volume displacement. Therefore, if one lot of seeds varies in size and weight from another, two different amounts or number of seeds will be metered if the drill setting is not changed. For this reason, metering systems should be calibrated each time when put to use.

The method of calibration will be given in detail in the manual provided along with the seed drill.

26.1. What?

These devices are used to lift water to a height that allows access to water. Lifting devices can be used to lift groundwater, rainwater stored in an underground reservoir and river water. For agricultural use, water is lifted either from a borewell or open well to irrigate the crops. According to power sources, lifting of water can be accomplished either manually or by animal or electricity sources of power.

26.2. Human-powered devices

Man has a limited physical power output, which may be in the range of 0.08 to 0.1 hp. This power can be used to lift water from shallow depths for irrigation. These include swing basket, counterpoise lift, don, Archimedean screw and paddle wheel. However, nowadays these are not commonly used.

26.3. Animal-powered devices

Animal power is abundantly available in India. They are used to lift water, besides being put to use for other field operations and processing works. A pair of bullocks may develop approximately 0.80 horsepower. They can lift water from a depth of 30m or more. Of course, the rate of discharge will go down with increase in the lift. These include rope and bucket lift, self emptying bucket, two bucket lift, Persian wheel and chain pump.

This chapter deals with equipment and machineries that are used in certain specific operations/ areas.

25.1. Lac cultivation

High-capacity scraper cum grader, scraper cum grader

25.2. Mushroom production

Grain Cleaner, Grain boiler, Boiled grain and Chalk powder mixer, Bag/bottle filler, Spawn inoculators, Substrate mixer - manually operated

24.1. What?

Most of the horticultural crops are raised by following special techniques such as budding and grafting. In case of landscape horticulture, frequent pruning and mowing are required to maintain the architecture. When new area is brought under cultivation, either jungle or unwanted plants have to be cleared. To perform all these operations, certain set of special tools are used. Some tools, though small, are of great need in raising and maintaining horticultural crops at various growth stages.

24.2. Special tools for horticultural crops

24.2.1. Manual

Axe, Dah, Hand shovel, Garden rake, Crow bar, Felling dao, Tea pruning dao, Billhook, Budding knife, Grafting knife, Budding and grafting knife, Pruning and slashing knives, Multipurpose chopping knife, Pruning secateurs, Pneumatic secateurs, Hedge shear, Hedge trimmer, Lopping shear, Forester shear, Grass shear, Garden sword, Flower scissors and coconut tree climber

23.1. What?

Post harvest and agro-processing refers to activities carried out after harvesting a crop. These include milling, grading, processing and packing of the produce before it reaches the end users. This is also referred to as value addition, as it increases the marketable quality of the harvested produce.

23.2. Milling

It is the process of separating edible portion of the grain after removal of the husk or seed coat. This converts the products into a form that can be readily used for cooking, e.g. rice milling and dal milling.

23.3. Grading

Grading is the process of segregating the harvested produce based on the physical appearance including size and colour. Grading increases the market value of the crop.

22.1. What?

Threshing is the process of separating grains from the straw or pod by impact, friction or both. Threshing should be done at an appropriate time after harvest. Delayed threshing causes rapid deterioration of the grains, especially during field drying or when the crop is stacked in the field. Improper threshing leads to wastage of grains and reduces the quantity of final marketable produce. After threshing, the produce has to be winnowed to remove lighter materials such as unfilled grains, chaff, weed seeds and straw using a blower, air fan or wind. Winnowing improves the ability of the grain to be safely stored, milling output and quality.

22.2. Methods employed

Traditionally, threshing is done by beating the harvested crop on a threshing floor directly or with a stick. Another traditional method of threshing is to make a bull walk in circles on the grain on a hard surface. In some areas, the harvested panicle with grain is spread on the surface of a country road so that the grain may be threshed by the wheels of passing vehicles. In these methods winnowing is separately performed. However, with the development of technology, now it is mostly done by machine referred to as threshers, shellers and stripper. Some of these threshers have inbuilt facility for threshing. Thus, threshing and winnowing are completed in a single process.

21.1. What?

Harvest is the process of gathering the end produce from mature crops in the fields. Harvest marks the end of the growing season, or the growing cycle for a particular crop. Harvesting is the most labour-intensive activity. Moreover, timely harvest before shattering of the produce or before rain assumes significance. As adjacent fields sown at the same time come to harvest simultaneously, farmers face great problem in getting manual labour for harvesting and cleaning their produce. To overcome these difficulties, different types of harvesters have been developed from time and again to suit different crops, situation and conditions.

21.2. Harvester and reaper

Harvesters are used to cut the crop after they mature. In such cases, threshing is to be done separately. Harvesters are available for a wide range of crops belonging to cereals, pulses, millets, oilseeds, fruits and plantation crops. Reapers are used to harvest crops such as rice, wheat, soybean, mustard, rapeseed, safflower and other thin stemmed crops. Reapers are operated using power tiller.

20.1. What?

Sprayer is equipment used for applying insecticides, fungicides, herbicides and in some cases fertilizers as foliar sprays to agricultural crops. Sprayers range in size from man-portable units (backpacks) to Self propelled units with boom mounts covering 60-150 feet length. Sprayers include the ones used for spraying liquid formulations, dusters for dusting dust formulations and granular applicators for delivering granules.

20.2. Principle of working

Sprayers work based on Bernoulli’s principle. Basically, the sprayers have a storage tank, a plunger, lance and a nozzle. When the plunger is pushed in, the air flows at a high velocity through the nozzle. The flow of air at high velocity creates a region of low pressure just above the lance. The higher atmospheric pressure acts on the surface of the liquid insecticide causing it to rise up the lance and the insecticide leaves out through the nozzle as a fine spray.

Sprayers are fitted with hollow cone nozzles for spraying pesticides and with flat fan nozzles for herbicides.

19.1. Need for weeding

Weeding is the critical operation to be carried out to obtain a good crop. Weeds are plants which grow in places where they are not wanted. They grow in the fields competing with crops for water, soil nutrients, light and space and thus reduce crop yields. They also harbor insect pests and micro-organisms. Certain weeds release the inhibitors or poisonous substances into the soil which are harmful to plants, human beings and livessecks. They increase the expenditure on labour and equipment, render harvesting difficult and reduce the quality and marketability of agricultural produce. When grown in water channels, they block and or reduce the flow of water.

The weed seeds germinate earlier and grow faster than the crop plant. This phenomenon is more pronounced when coupled with favourable environment like fine soil tilth and the soil receiving adequate water and fertilizers. Weeds flower earlier and produce seeds profusely ahead of the crop. So, these seeds get mixed up with the harvested crop and are distributed to the next season or transported to other places along with the harvested produce.

18.1. What?

The basic objective of sowing is to place the seed in rows at the desired depth, to maintain proper spacing between seed to seed, cover the seeds with soil and provide proper compaction over the seed if required. Precise sowing/planting helps in better crop stand. This helps to achieve optimum yields. Traditional sowing methods include broadcasting manually, opening furrows by a country plough and dropping seeds by hand (i.e.) dibbling. In the present day, improved seed-cum-fertilizer drills are used for sowing and fertilizer application. These are provided with seed and fertilizer boxes, metering mechanism, furrow openers, covering devices, frame, ground drive system and controls for variation of seed and fertilizer rates.

18.2. Types of sowing/planting equipment

Sowing equipment include seeders and transplanters. Various types of sowing equipment, viz., manually operated, animal drawn, power operated and tractor drawn are used throughout India.

18.2.1. Seed drills

Seeders are available for sowing seeds of various crops. Some seeders have been designed with adjustable metering mechanism which makes them versatile for sowing two or three kinds of seeds. For example, a multicrop planter developed by CIAE is used for sowing garlic, maize, moong, peas and groundnut. Similarly, the institute has developed a small seed sowing drill which is used for sowing small seeds such as bajra, rapeseed and mustard.

17.1. What?

The soil is prepared to a fine tilth, which is referred to as land preparation or preparatory cultivation. This enables proper sowing of seeds, planting of seedlings and precise application of fertilizers to the crop. Various implements are used to prepare the land. The basic ones are ploughs, harrows, cultivators or tillers, and land levellers. These implements are manually operated or by animals or tractors. Various improvements have been made to increase the efficiency of each one of the implements by research workers. Many products are also available to suit the local regions and soil condition.

17.2. Plough

It has been the basic implement used for decades in agriculture to open up and invert the soil for initial cultivation. While inverting the soil, it also buries the weeds and the remains of the previous crops and allows them to decay. In the process of inverting, it also aerates the soil. Ploughs were initially used with animal power. Later on, many improved implements with heavy weights have been developed. These are drawn by tractors.

1. Introduction

Agricultural mechanization refers to usage of any improved tool, implement and machine by the farm workers to improve the efficiency of any operation to increase productivity. It also helps to reduce drudgery or stress which adversely affects human mental faculties leading to errors, imprecision and hazards and eventually loss of efficiency if done manually. In developed countries, however, mechanization is synonymous to automation. There is scope to mechanize every operation of crop production, post harvest and agro-processing.

Farm tractor designs and styles differ greatly. Tractors are often used on a daily basis for several agricultural and non-agricultural tasks by attaching or operating light, medium to heavy implements, equipment and machineries according to the requirement and hp of tractors. Tractors are very versatile and can be used on sandy (light textured), loamy (medium textured) and clayey (heavy textured) soil at different topographic and agro-climatic conditions. Earlier, the proportion of tractor usage in agricultural and non-agricultural work was 70:30. This proportion has increased to about 55: 45 over the past two to three years. It is expected to reach 50:50 in (agricultural:non-agricultural applications) in the coming years. The major application of farm tractors for agricultural and non-agricultural sectors is given below.

13.1. Types

Lamps: Head lamp, plough lamp, indicators

Switches: Safety switch, starter switch, etc

13.2. Components

Battery: A battery provides power to electrical or electronic circuits. The voltage rating of a battery tells how much electrical “pressure” the battery can provide. Battery energy is used to operate starter motor and to provide current to the ignition system during cranking. The electrolyte should always be maintained just below the maximum level, but should not go down below the 1/4^th level.

Alternator: Alternators are electromechanical devices used to convert mechanical energy to alternating current electrical energy. While some of the alternators use rotating magnetic field, some use linear. The functioning of alternators is similar to that of direct current generators. As the magnetic field around a conductor changes, a current is induced in the conductor. The rotating magnet or the rotor turns and cuts the field across the conductors. Thus, an electrical current is produced which causes the rotor to turn. This rotating magnetic field causes an AC voltage in the stator windings. In tractors, alternators are used to charge the battery and to power the electric system when its engine is running. An alternator is superior to a dynamo as it provides more precise output control, requires lesser maintenance, is more compact and requires no cut-out.

12.1. Instruments panel

12.1.1. Oil pressure gauge

Indicates oil pressure in Kgf/cm²

11.1. Hydraulic system

It is a mechanism in a tractor to raise, hold or lower the mounted or semi-mounted equipment by hydraulic means. All the present day tractors are equipped with a hydraulic control system for operating three point hitches. Some of the tractors are fitted with a hydraulic brake system and a few others are fitted with a hydraulic steering system. Tipping trailers, front mounted loaders or dozers are examples of multi use of hydraulics.

11.2. Principle

The working principle of a hydraulic system is based on Pascal’s law (Fig 11.1.) This law states that the pressure applied to an enclosed fluid is transmitted equally in all directions. A small force acting on a small area can produce higher force on a surface of larger area.

10.8.1. Function

A power take-off (PTO) is a splined drive shaft on a tractor that can be used to provide power to an attachment or a stand alone machine. PTO shaft gets the drive from hydraulic pump shaft. This in turn gets drive from engine. PTO is designed to be easily connected and disconnected (Fig 10.8.1.). It is used to operate implements, viz., rotavator, fertilizer spreader, duster and many more machines which are stationary such as threshers, water pump and portable flour mill. These shafts either run at 540 rpm with 6 splines in the shaft or at 1000 rpm with 21 splines in the shaft. But many old tractors have 540 rpm PTO. The present day equipment is designed to operate with 1000 rpm PTO shaft. The manufacturers of old tractor models provide an auxiliary gear box which increases the speed of PTO to 1000 rpm. Selection of implements, equipment and machinery should be done on the basis of available tractor PTO speed.

9.7.1. Function

The front axle is the unit on which the front wheel is mounted. This wheel is an idler wheel by which the tractor is steered in various directions. The function is to assist the steering and support the tractor. It is a rigid tubular or I-section steel construction, pivoted at the centre. The pivot pin is housed on bushings on a support bolted to the front of the engine. As the track width of a tractor is adjustable, the front axles have provision to be extended on both sides. The tubular front axles have telescopic arrangement for extension, whereas the I-section type of front axles are three-piece axles.

8.6.1. Function

It steers the tractor in the required direction. The rotation of the steering wheel moves the steering column, which in turn rotates the sector shaft. This rotation pulls the pit man arms on one side and pushes at the other side. This motion is conveyed to the wheels by the drag link and makes the front wheel turn in the requisite direction.

7.5.1. Functions

The two primary functions of tyres, especially rear ones, are to provide maximum work output while ploughing the field and for haulage.

6.4.1. Function

The brake is used to stop or slow down the motion of a tractor. It is mounted on the driving axle and operated by two independent pedals. Each pedal can be operated independently to assist turning of the tractor during field work or both the pedals can be locked together.

6.4.2. Principle of operation

The brake works on the principle of friction. When a moving element is brought into contact with a stationary element, the motion of the moving element is affected. This is due to frictional force which acts in the opposite direction of the motion and converts the kinetic energy into heat energy.

5.3.1. Main components

Shear tube: It absorbs heavy shocks and protects the components of rear transmission and main transmission from breaking.

Crown wheel and pinion: It transmits the drive from the main shaft to the rear axle shaft and inverts the direction of rotation to 90° from the main shaft. It reduces the speed and multiplies the torque.

Rear axle: It is a semi floating type. It transfers the drive from the sun gear to the rear wheel.

5.3.2. How does it work?

The drive from the main shaft of the gear box is taken to the rear drive shaft through the coupler planetary. Depending on the position of the high–low gear and lever which moves the coupler, power is transmitted directly or through epicyclic gear train. The drive from the rear drive shaft is transferred to a safety coupling also known as shear tube. The coupling is a safety device. In case the rear wheels encounter any shock loading, the coupling breaks and disconnects the gear box from the rear transmission. This prevents damage to costly parts in the transmission, clutch and engine. Power is transmitted from safety coupling to a pinion which has a spiral bevel gear at one end. The bevel pinion is supported on two tapered roller bearings carried in a housing which is mounted in the centre housing.

4.2.1. Gear boxes

It is a unit fitted after the clutch. Forms a part of transmission and provides speed and torque conversions from a rotating power source to another device using gear ratios. Its primary function is to change the speed of the tractor to cater to varying field, road and load condition. It also helps in reversing the tractor.

Gears are usually made of alloy steel. Since the tractor has to transmit heavy torque all the time, the best quality lubricants, free from sediments, grit, alkali and moisture, are used for lubrication. SAE 90 oil is generally recommended for gear box.

The description about gear boxes stated below pertains to major tractors manufactured in India. The number of teeth in each of the gear and the engagement between gears of the main shaft and the corresponding gear on the counter/lay shaft also change in different tractors evolved over a period of time. Hence, information hosted in this section is only indicative.

3.1.1. Introduction

Clutch is a device which is used to connect and disconnect the tractor engine from the transmission gears and drive wheels. It is fitted in between the engine and gear box. The clutch transmits power by means of friction between driving members and the driven members.

2.1. Introduction

The engine is the source that generates power. It transforms chemical energy in fuel into mechanical energy for power. Diesel internal combustion engines are invariably used in all the tractors. In these engines, very high compression of the air ignites the fuel as compared to spark plug that ignites fuel in petrol engines. The air in the diesel engine is compressed with a compression ratio typically between 15 and 22 resulting in a 40 bar (about 600 psi) pressure as compared to 8 to 14 bar (about 200 psi) in the petrol engine. This high compression heats the air to 550°C (1022°F). At about this moment, small droplets of fuel are sprayed in an atomized form directly into the compressed air in the combustion chamber.

2.2. How does it work?

Any engine will work with four strokes, namely suction, compression, power and exhaust (Fig 2.1). It will also complete two revolutions of the crankshaft. In the suction stroke, pure air is drawn into the cylinder through the inlet valve. The exhaust valve gets closed and the crankshaft completes half a revolution. In the compression stroke, the piston moves up while the valves remain closed. The air which is drawn into the cylinder during the suction stroke is compressed. There is a rise in temperature. The hot air ignites the fuel injected into the cylinder. The crankshaft again completes half a revolution. In the power stroke, the hot products of combustion, viz., carbon dioxide and nitrogen expand. The piston is forced down. The valves remain closed and the crankshaft completes half a revolution. In the exhaust stroke, the exhaust valve opens while the piston reaches the lowest point of travel. Then the burnt gases are swept out.

1.1. Definition

A tractor is a specific vehicle designed to deliver a high tractive torque at slow speeds, for the purposes of haulage or for pulling an agricultural implement or equipment or machinery. This vehicle is also used as a source of power for stand-alone agricultural machineries. The word tractor is taken from Latin being the agent noun of trahere “to pull”.

1.2. History of evolution

The first engine-powered farm tractors used steam and were introduced in 1868. These engines resembled small road locomotives. They were used for general road haulage and in particular for timber trade. The most popular steam tractor was the Garrett 4CD.

In 1887, gasoline-fuelled engines were tried as an alternative to steam engines. Later, Henry Ford produced his first experimental gasoline powered tractor in 1907, under the direction of his chief engineer Joseph Galamb. It was referred to as an “automobile plow”. While unpopular at first, these gasoline powered machines began to catch on. In the 1910, the size of the tractor was smaller than the earlier introductions and also became more affordable. In 1917, Henry Ford introduced the first mass-produced tractor. These were built in the U.S.A., Ireland, England and Russia. The unique feature of these tractor consisted of the strength of the engine holding the entire machine together. By 1920, tractors with a gasoline powered internal combustions engine had become a norm.

1.3. History in India

The level of mechanization in Agriculture was very low at the time of independence in 1947. But, the initial few five-year plans implemented by the Government of India gave an impetus to the improvement in the production and productivity of major crops including mechanization via joint ventures and tie-ups between local industrialists and international tractor manufacturers. It was three decades after independence that the domestic production of 4-wheel tractors grew slowly. In 1990, the tractor production was nearly 2,70,000 units per year and by the 2013, the volume approached to about 6,96,000 units per year. India has presently overtaken the United States as the world’s largest producer of four-wheel tractors with over 16 national and 4 multinational corporations engaged in its production. But still the Food and Agriculture Organization estimates that from out of the total agricultural area, less than 50% is under-mechanized land preparation. This indicates that potential for large tractorization still exists. Credit facilities for farmers have been improving steadily over the years. This is one of the prime drivers of the sale of tractor in India.

The functioning of the Women Dairy Cooperative Societies depends upon the variations in managerial capacity leading to profit and loss of different WDCS. To make an in-depth analysis, the study was undertaken in undivided Cuttack and Dhenkanal district of Odisha covering 22 randomized WDCS with a sample of 110 women respondents.

The analysis of the findings after statistical treatment have been presented objective-wise as follows;

Socio-economic profile of the members of WDCS involved in dairy production activities.

Gap between procedures prescribed and followed in formation and functioning of WDCS.

Identification and analysis of key performance areas in the WDCS.

Determination of management practices and milk production profiles of WDCS members.

Extent of participation of women members in dairy activities.

Entrepreneurial characteristics of members of Women Dairy Cooperative Society.

Impact of WDCS on socio-economic status of the members.

Correlating variables and their interrelationship in predicting smooth functioning of WDCS.

Constraints faced by the WDCS members.

Suggestions of members for improvement in functioning of WDCS

The major focus of the study was to critically analyse the overall performance of Women Dairy Cooperative Societies (WDCS) in two districts of Odisha. The methodology used in carrying out investigation has been outlined in eight sections as mentioned below.

1. Selection of problem
2. Research design
3. Plan of work
4. Locale of the study
5. Sampling procedure

The study was undertaken in the state of Odisha. The state lies in between 17^o-31’ to 22^o-27’ North latitude and 81^o-27 to 87^o-30’ East longitude. It is bounded by West Bengal in the north east, Jharkhand in the north, Chatisgarh in the west, Andhra Pradesh in the south and Bay of Bengal in the east. The main features of the state is appeared inTable 3.1.

Status of Women

As per 2011 Census, women account for 586.46 million, and represent 48.5% of India’s total population. However, from global perspectives, they constitute half of global population, and 1/3^rd labour force, but receive only 1/10^th of world income, and own less than 1% of world’s property. Further from national point of view as Reddy et al. (1994) in his study opined that “although women constitute 50 percent of India’s population, perform two-thirds of the work and produce 50 percent of food commodities consumed by the country and they earn only one-third of the remuneration and 10 percent of the property or wealth of the country.

The vast majority of working women are uneducated cultivators and agricultural labourers residing in villages. Most of the women, working on the family farm are unpaid labourers. 63 percent of all educated women with at least a high school certificate are unemployed, and of the 37 percent who are employed 15 percent are clerks, 5 percent teachers, 7 percent nurses and 10 percent are other professionals. Only 6 percent of Government employees are women (Jain, A.K. 2004). Rural Women form the most important productive work force in the economy of majority of the developing nations including India. Agriculture, the single largest production endeavour in India, contributing about 18% of GDP, is increasingly becoming a female activity. Agriculture sector employs 4/5th of all economically active women in the country. 48% of India’s self-employed farmers are women. There are 75 million women engaged in dairying as against 15 million men and 20 million in animal husbandry as compared to 1.5 million men.

Despite progress in several key indicators, a gender analysis demonstrates that women continue to be relatively disadvantaged in matters of survival, health, nutrition, literacy and productivity. Further, more than 90 percent of rural women are unskilled, restricting them to low paid occupations. Women generally have no control over land and other productive assets which largely exclude them from access to institutional credit. Further, agricultural wages for women, on an average 30-50 percent less than those for men. Though they work for longer hours under inhospitable conditions, their participation in decision making process is less than desirable.

Livestock Population and it’s Economic Contribution

According to 18th Livestock census of India (2007), India has about 199.1 million cattle, which constitute 44.29 per cent of Asian and 12.7 per cent of the world cattle population. The current buffalo population is 105.34 million which accounts 57 per cent of Asian and 55 per cent of the world buffalos. The major output of the entire livestock sector is from the milk, which is the second most agricultural commodities next to paddy. According to the annual report of the Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperation, during 2006-07, the contribution of milk alone (Rs.1,44,386 crore) was higher than paddy (Rs.85,032 crore), wheat (Rs.66,791 crore) and sugarcane (Rs.28,488 crore). The value of output from meat group animals as per estimates of Central Statistical Organization (CSO) at current prices was Rs. 34, 310 crore during 2006-07. Total export earnings from livestock, poultry and related products were Rs.5,213.80 crore during 2006-07. Eighty percent rural households keep livestock for their subsidiary income, important for employment, livelihood, nutrition, constant flow of quick and fast income, reduces the vulnerability of agricultural production. Trends indicate that animal protein consumption would rise proportionately with increase in income. The 18th Livestock Census (2007) has placed the total livestock population at 529.698 million and total of poultry birds at 648.830 million.

The growth pole theory was developed by French regional economist, Francois Perroux, in 1955. He was concerned with the phenomenon of economic development and with the process of structural change. Growth pole is a central location of economic activity. It is an urban location where economic activity ignites growth and better quality of life in the urban periphery.

He attempted to explain how modern process of economic growth deviated from the stationary conception of equilibrium growth. His arguments were based on Schumpeter’s theories of the role of innovations and large scale firms.

In Schumpeter’s analysis, development occurs as a result of discontinuous spurts in a dynamic world. The cause of discontinuous spurts is the innovative entrepreneur whose activities take place in large-scale firms. These firms are able to dominate their environment in the sense of exercising reversible and partially reversible influences on other economic units by reason of their dimension and negotiating strength, and by the nature of their operations.

Scale of operations, dominance and impulses have close relationship to innovate. This is the most important feature of Perroux’s theory and leads to the concepts of dynamic propulsive firm and leading propulsive industry. The dynamic propulsive firm is relatively large and belongs to a relatively fast growing sector. It has a high ability to innovate and intensity of its interrelation with other sectors of the economy is important enough for the induced effects to be transmitted to them.

Thomas Robert Malthus enunciated his views about population in his famous book, Essay on the Principle of Population as it affects the Future Improvement of Society, published in 1798. Malthus revolted against the prevailing optimism shared by his father and Godwin that a perfect state could be attained if human restraints could be removed.

Malthus’ objection was that the pressure of increasing population on the food supply would destroy perfection and there would be misery in the world. Malthus was severely criticised for his pessimistic views which led him to travel on the continent of Europe to gather data in support of his thesis. He incorporated his researches in the second edition of his Essay published in 1803.

The Malthusian theory of population is the most well-known theory on population in economics. Malthus pointed out that an accelerated increase in population would outweigh the increase in food production. This would have an adverse impact on the development of an economy. The Malthusian theory explains the relationship between the growth in food supply and in population. It states that population increase faster than food supply and if unchecked leads to vice or misery. This theory is explained in the following propositions

The demographic transition theory is one of the most important population theories which is the best documented by the data and statistics of recent demographic history. In its original form, the demographic transition theory was put forward by W. S. Thompson (1929) and Frank W. Notestein (1945). These scholars based their statements and arguments on the trends in fertility and mortality, being experienced in Europe, North America and Australia.

The theory postulates a particular pattern of demographic change from a high fertility and high mortality to a low fertility and low mortality when a society progresses from a largely rural agrarian and illiterate society to a dominantly urban, industrial, literate and modern society. The three very clearly stated hypotheses involved in the process are:

1. The decline in mortality comes before the decline in fertility.
2. The fertility eventually declines to match mortality and
3. Socio - economic transformation of society takes place simultaneously with its demographic transformation.

In the present – day world, as would true of any point in time, different countries of the world are at different stages of the demographic transition. In the opinion of Trewartha, this is largely due to the dual nature of man. According to him, biologically, man is same everywhere and is engaged in the process of reproduction but culturally man differs from one part of the world to another. It is the cultural diversity of man that gives rise to varying fertility patterns in different areas resulting in different stages of demographic transition.

The demographic transition theory is characterized by conspicuous transition stages. The transition from high birth and death rates to low rates can be divided into stages. In the words of E.G. Dolan, “Demographic transition refers to a population cycle that begins with a fall in the death rate continues with a phase of rapid population growth and concludes with a decline in birth rate”.

Alfred Weber first introduced his famous theory of industrial location in 1909, in his book entitled, Uber den Standort der Industrien and its English translation was published in 1929 as The Location and Theory of Industries. His theory is known as ‘LeastCost Location Theory’ or ‘LeastCost Minimization Approach’. The basic objective of the Weber’s theory is to find out the minimum cost location of an industry.

Walter Isard had given the location theory in 1956 vided publication entitled, Location and the Space Economy. Isard has modified the Loschian schema, in the attempt to make it more realistic. Isard linked location theory to the general theory of economics through the substitution principle.

In economic theory, capital can be substituted for labour, for example. Similarly, the selection of a manufacturing site from among alternative locations can be viewed as substituting expenditures among the various production factors such that the best site is chosen. (Fig.10.1) provides one simple illustration of Isard’s substitution principle.

This theory belongs to the ‘market area’ or ‘profit maximisation’ approach and has focused on spatial variations in scales potential. August Losch was a German economist and he proposed his theory in 1939 in a book entitled Die taumliches Ordnung Derwirt’s Chaff.

He disregarded spatial variations in production costs by holding them constant, and instead depicted optimal location as occurring where the largest possible market area is monopolised – that is, where sales potential and total revenue potential are maximised. Losch sought to explain the size and shape of market areas within which a location would command the largest revenue.

The social area analysis model of urban structure incorporates all three aspects of city structure, namely concentric zones, sectors and multiple nuclei. It is a more comprehensive statement of urban forms. The model was developed by R.A. Murdie in 1969. According to this model, the physical space of streets, buildings and roads are superimposed by three dimension of social space (Fig. 8.1). The social criteria are the following:

Family Status

Family status indicators include population and age variables, house ownership and age characteristics, family size and marital status and other life cycle. These exhibit a concentric zonal or ring pattern with older, smaller renter households located near the city centre and owner occupied newer larger family households near the outer fringe.

Economic Status

Economic status tends to include measure of income, occupation and education. This portrays a distinct sectoral pattern with definite high income and low income sectors.

Introduction

The search for order in the location and size of settlements continues. Certain geographers examined the size of distribution of settlements and described in graphical form the relationship between the number and size of settlements. Their methods were radically different in that they were not deterministic, rather than making a set of assumptions, deriving a theory and testing it against reality, they observed the size and number of settlements in various countries and noted a common characteristic, which was called the rank size rule. Having once observed this order in the real world, they then sought to explain it. A relationship which is observed on several occasions is called an empirical regularity. The rank size rule is one such empirical regularity.

The rank size rule was first observed by Auerbach in 1913 but was proposed and popularized by G.K. Zipf in his book “Human Behaviour and the Principle of Least Effort”. Since then, many writers have attempted to explain it but the basic aim has always remained the same: to find a graphical description to the size distribution of cities which would apply to the situation prevailing in many countries.

Rank Size Rule: Theoretical Base and Concept

Rank size rule is a theory describing numerical distribution of settlement, which recognises an empirical regularity whereby the product obtained by multiplying a city’s rank by its size is equal to a constant, the population of the country’s largest city such that for a given settlement system

Introduction

The characteristic features of a city are the result of the combination of various factors like topography, climate, history, economy, culture, etc. since these characteristics vary; every town/city is unique and has certain distinctive characteristics. These urban characteristics are, however, never static. They change both over time and space.

With the development of the economy, other factors like population growth, urbanization and improved technology have a combined effect on urban settlements, which grow bigger and more complex. The study of the internal structure of cities by urban geographers is a study of the structural and demographical variations (i.e., variations in building size, shape, height, function and social status) of urban settlement.

Theories on the Internal Structure of Cities

The internal structure of cities has attracted many generalizations in the form of theories. These theories have attempted to explain the city structure by examining cities at any location in a country largely from sociological viewpoint. The different theories on the internal structure of cities are the Concentric Zone theory of Burgess, Sector Theory of Hoyt, the Multiple Nuclei Theory of Ullman, the Social Area Analysis of Murdie and the Exploitative Model of William Bunge.

The scale of human settlements is dynamic; it ranges from farmstead to village to town to city and to metropolis. There is thus, a broad hierarchy of settlements. These hierarchies can be grouped according to size and function. Size hierarchies are ranked from the highest to the smallest settlements only in terms of population while functional hierarchies are essentially based on the extent to which settlements have an economic impact on their surrounding areas. Functional hierarchies rank the settlement according to the number of shops, the number of specialised services available or the most dominant financial organisations. Such hierarchies mayor may not have similar sized market areas. Despite their having the same population, one town might surpass another in functional importance.

In this context, two theories have been propounded-the Central Place Theory by Walter Christaller and its modified version by August Losch. These theories are two of the most important examples of the scientific approach to the study of settlements. These theories suggest that there is a definite link between the functions of a settlement and its spatial locations with regularity in the distribution pattern within an urban system.