eChapters

ABSTRACT

There is a tremendous growth in the open educational resources in the recent past and large number of universities and academic organisations are making their resources freely available over the internet which has become a significant source of open educational content. Open education movement are built on the belief that anyone can use, access, reuse and redistribute these educational resources without any constraints. These Open education movements are helping educational community worldwide in making education more accessible and in making it more effective. In this chapter effort has been made to provide an overview of the history and emergence of open educational resources’ movement. This chapter also explains the various characteristics and sources of open educational resources. This chapter will help the libraries and librarians to know about open educational resources initiatives and to incorporate them in their libraries for effective resource delivery and disseminations.

Keywords: ICT, OER, Open educational resources, Digital resources, Digital repositories.

Introduction to Open Source Audio Editing Software
The field of audio editing has seen remarkable advancements, driven by opensource software that democratizes access to high-quality audio production tools. Unlike proprietary software, open-source audio editors are freely available, and they allow users to access, modify, and enhance the source code to suit specific needs. Open-source tools are popular among audio engineers, musicians, content creators, and educators for their cost-effectiveness, flexibility, and ability to operate across multiple platforms.
This chapter explores popular open-source software options for audio editing, their features, advantages, limitations, and how they compare with proprietary solutions. Additionally, we discuss the technical principles underpinning audio editing, such as waveform editing, multi-track capabilities, effects processing, and export functionalities.
1. Fundamentals of Audio Editing
Before delving into specific open-source tools, it is essential to understand the core features required for audio editing:
• Waveform Editing: Displaying audio signals as waveforms allows for precise editing, such as trimming, splitting, and moving audio segments.
• Multi-track Editing: This feature enables the layering of audio tracks to create complex compositions, mix music, or align voiceovers with background tracks.
• Effects and Processing: Basic effects include equalization (EQ), reverb, compression, and normalization, which are essential for refiningthe audio quality.
• Export Options: A variety of export formats (MP3, WAV, FLAC, etc.) are needed for different purposes, from high-fidelity production to compressed web formats.

Introduction
 
Library automation in the first giant step towards the use of ICT based products & services in libraries. It brings great revolution and saves tremendous time of users and library staff for collecting and disseminating information. Library automation refers to use of computers, associated peripheral media such as software for automation, magnetic tapes, disks, optical media etc. Library automation makes the provision to provide the 'right information to right reader at the right time in a right form in a right personal way' it is the basic aim of libraries. There are some open source software available e.g. Evergreen, CDS Invenio, Koha, NewGenLib, PMB, PhpMyLibrary, OpenBiblio as well as many commercial software: SOUL, Alice for windows, Netlib, LibSys etc.

Introduction to Open Source Software in Video Editing In the digital age, video editing has become an essential skill, both for professionals in the media industry and for hobbyists. Open source software,
with its flexibility, affordability, and community-driven support, has emerged as a popular choice for video editing. Unlike proprietary software, open source software is freely available and can be modified and shared by users, allowing for constant updates and improvements.
Open source video editing tools provide a wide array of features, from basic trimming and cutting to advanced color grading, visual effects, and audio editing. These tools not only serve as cost-effective alternatives to commercial software but also encourage community involvement and learning.
Key Features of Open Source Video Editing Software
Open source video editors often include many features found in professionalgrade software, such as:
• Non-linear Editing (NLE): This allows users to access and edit any part of the video file in a non-sequential manner, giving greater flexibility.
• Multi-track Editing: Users can work with multiple video and audio layers, making it easier to combine elements for complex edits.
• Visual Effects and Transitions: Many open source editors support a variety of effects and transitions to enhance visual storytelling.
• Audio Editing Capabilities: These programs often provide basic audio editing tools and support for multi-track audio, essential for producing high-quality sound.
• Color Grading and Correction: Some open source editors allow users to adjust brightness, contrast, and color, ensuring a polished, professional look.

The rapid expansion of Large Language Models has created two major development ecosystems: open-source models that emphasize transparency, accessibility and community participation, and proprietary models that emphasize centralized control, commercial support and scalable services. This chapter provides a comparative examination of these approaches across technical, economic, ethical and operational dimensions. Open-source models typically provide access to model architectures, weights and development tools, enabling researchers and organizations to inspect, modify, fine-tune and deploy models for specialized applications. Their community-driven nature can accelerate innovation and reduce barriers to experimentation. Proprietary models, in contrast, generally provide controlled access through commercial APIs or platforms and may offer optimized infrastructure, enterprise support, security mechanisms and large-scale deployment capabilities. The chapter compares the two approaches in terms of transparency, customization, licensing, scalability, accessibility, security, cost, accountability and innovation potential. It also discusses the advantages and limitations of each model for startups, academic institutions, enterprises and researchers. Rather than presenting a universal winner, the chapter emphasizes that model selection should depend on application requirements, available resources, governance needs, technical expertise and desired levels of control.

Abstract

The known views in society about the biotech foods were collected and structured in statements. An opinion survey of sixty scientists of CCS Haryana Agricultural University on these statements was conducted. Half of the scientists agreed that there were no biotech food products in our country. Biotech foods were considered safe for human consumption by 61.7% of the respondents. A large majority of the scientists considered that biotech foods were different in taste from foods made from conventional crops. Similarly 65% of scientists had the opinion that biotech crops increase food allergies. Fifty percent of the scientists agreed that biotech foods were regulated and tested. The rest opined that labeling is needed for biotech foods even in USA. Overwhelming majority felt that biotech foods were not widely accepted. Meat, milk and egg products from biotech animals were not concieved as unsafe to eat by 43.3% respondents. Equal number of scientists felt the same about foods produced through biotechnology and viewed that these were not tested for health.

Introduction

Meat is a highly nutritious animal product relished by majority of the population in India. India produced around 6.2 million MT of meat in 2013 (FAOSTAT, 2013), standing at fifth position in world meat production and accounts for only 3 per cent of total meat production in the world (APEDA, 2017). Contribution of livestock sector to national economy in terms of gross domestic product (GDP) was 4.1 per cent in 2012-13 (Islam et al., 2016). The percentage of meat subjected to processing in India is only 1-2 per cent compared to 70 per cent in developed countries (Sen et al., 2013). Relatively higher proportion of poultry (7-8%) is converted into further processed poultry products. Major proportion of the meat produced in the country is derived from old and unproductive animals. Availability of spent birds is also on the rise due to the rapid growth in poultry industry. Meat from such animals and poultry has less desirable palatability attributes, especially tenderness, which makes it more suitable for processing into value added products. This will provide consumers with more acceptable, convenient, healthy and versatile products while simultaneously increasing the economic returns to the processor. The profitability of meat industry is critically dependent in deriving extra value from lower-value meat cuts. To achieve this, value must be added in the eyes of the consumer across the wide chain of value added products.

Introduction

India has been an agricultural economy since its inception. Several mechanisms are used in agribusiness, such as forward and backward linkages with secondary and tertiary sectors, such as manufacturing and service sectors. Opportunities in agriculture and related sectors can be identified at various stages of the farming process. Generally, agribusiness opportunities exist at the input stage, the farming stage, the value chain, the output processing and marketing stage, and the related services stage. As a result of globalisation and a more interconnected global market, the scope and potential of agribusiness opportunities is expanding. For entrepreneurs, there are numerous potential opportunities. Many different inputs are required in the agricultural process, such as seeds, fertilisers, pesticides, and innovative and localised farm technology. As a result, the aforementioned areas create agribusiness opportunities in developing and producing these inputs.

Basics of effective oral presentation : Planning , preparing (Introduction, Body and conclusion), Delivery, Body language and Handling anxiety-Strategies for giving oral presentation

Oral presentation means delivering an address to a public audience. It also refers to public speaking and/or speech-making. It is a brief discussion of a defined topic delivered to a public audience in order to impart knowledge or to stimulate discussion. The skill in oral presentation is equally as important as effective writing. Almost every oral presentation contains an introduction, main body and conclusion like a short paper. Though it is a formal speech in nature or vocal performance to an audience, it may occasionally require adequate planning and thorough preparation in using one’s voice, body language and visual aids such as slideshows to present and illustrate the points more effectively and to achieve the desired results.

Body languages such as eye contact, facial expression, posture and gesture plays a significant role in oral presentation process. The proper use of the voice and the ability to adjust it to suit the slightest differences of meaning are also very important in oral presentation. In addition to correct pronunciation, variation in pitch and cadence, free from speech mannerism, fluency in delivery are also very important in oral presentation.

Organic farming is getting more and more popular as a farm practice. Although most agricultural land is still processed through conventional farming, the demand for organic agriculture and organic crops is constantly increasing. Organic farming is defined in a variety of ways. The majority of them argue that synthetically manufactured fertilisers and pesticides are not allowed in organic farming. This is right; yet, organic farming encompasses much more. Organic farming is founded on unique qualities as a wholly natural and sustainable farm management technique. To put it another way, organic farming is both an agricultural practise and a philosophy of cooperating with nature.

In India, there are two accreditation systems for authorizing Certification and Inspection agencies for organic certification. National Programme on organic Production (NPOP) promoted by Ministry of Commerce is the core programme which governs and defines the standards and implementing procedures. National Accreditation Body (NAB) is the apex decision making body. Certification and Inspection agencies accredited by NAB are authorized to undertake certification process. The NPOP notified under FTDR act and controlled by Agricultural Processed Foods Export Development Authority (APEDA) looks after the requirement of export while NPOP notified under APGMC act and controlled by Agriculture Marketing Advisor, Directorate of Marketing and Inspection looks after domestic certification. Currently 20 certification agencies have been authorized to undertake certification process.

National Programme on Organic Production

National Program on Organic Production (NPOP) was launched during 2001 under the Foreign Trade & Development Act (FTDR Act). The document provides information on standards for organic production, systems criteria, and procedures for accreditation of Inspection and Certification bodies, the national organic logo and the regulations governing its use.

Manure is the organic material derived from animal, human and plant residues which contain plant nutrients in complex forms. Manures are used as source of plant nutrients. They release nutrient after their decomposition. They are applied in large quantities

Advantages of Organic Manures

• Organic manure provides all the nutrients that are required by plants but in limited quantities.
• It helps in maintaining C:N ratio in the soil and also increases the fertility and productivity of the soil.
• It improves the physical, chemical and biological properties of the soil.
• It improves both the structure and texture of the soils.
• It increases the water holding capacity of the soil.
• Due to increase in the biological activity, the nutrients that are in the lower depths are also made available to the plants through manures.
• It acts as mulch, thereby minimizing the evaporation losses of moisture from the soil.

Realizing that nematodes cannot be eliminated, and that we must live with them, the overall goal is to keep the population density as low as possible. The economic threshold is the density of nematodes where the losses incurred exceed the cost of nematode management. It is not advisable to depend on a single method to control nematodes. Efficient management requires judicious and careful integration of several which will result in reduction of nematode populations. Important components of non chemical methods of nematode management program are considered in this chapter.

17.1. Organic Amendments

Manure and fertilizer applications are essential part of growing any crop. Besides supplying required essential nutrients theyhelp in many ways directly or indirectly by suppressing harmful organisms including phytonematodes. The use of organic amendments against nematodes was demonstrated by Linford et al., in as early as 1938. FYM and cattle urine have found to reduce nematode population. Biogas plant waste slurry was found to be effective for nematode management. Compost of water hyacinth, oilcakes, cellulose amendments like sawdust, wheat straw, rice husk, rice hull ash, green manuring with legumes, green leaf incorporation are useful to keep nematode populations low. Non - edible oilcakes like those of neem, karanj, mahua, caster, cotton as well as edible oilcakes groundnut, mustard sesame, coconut have been recommended at 2 - 2.5 t/ha for reduction of root knot and other nematode population in soil. Miscellaneous substances like decaffeinated tea waste, rice hull ash, chicken manure, tannery and food and fruit processing waste, market and domestic organic refuse, dead vegetation and crop stalks, wood shaving, etc. have been recommended for root knot nematode management. Castor leaves (40g/kg) along with NPK at 75:25:37.5 kg/ha achieved reduction of M. javanica population on tomato.

Paddy is cultivated about 45 m ha in India, less than 1% is under organic cultivation.

16.1. Varieties

Good quality fine varieties like Ponni, Super ponni, insect and disease resistant varities must be selected for getting higher yield and returns.

16.2. Seeds

Organically produced seeds only must be used.

16.3. Seed Treatment

For 1 kg of seeds 20 g Azospirillum, Pseudomonas and 10 g Phospobacteria must be used with rice gruel.

Panchagavya spray @ 1% for treating the seeds.

Exhibition

An exhibition is a public display of works of art, artifacts, products, or other items of interest. Exhibitions are typically organized in galleries, museums, trade shows, or public spaces and can be focused on a single theme or a wide range of subjects. They aim to inform, educate, and engage the audience, offering an opportunity for visitors to experience and interact with the displayed items.

Audio Visual Aids

Audio visual (AV) aids are tools that use both sound and visual components to enhance the communication of information. Examples include videos, slideshows, interactive displays, projectors, speakers, and digital screens. These aids are used in various settings, such as classrooms, corporate presentations, and exhibitions, to make the content more engaging and easier to understand.

Integration of AV Aids in Exhibitions

Integrating AV aids in exhibitions involves incorporating technologies like projectors, speakers, touchscreens, and interactive kiosks to enhance the visitor experience. This integration can bring static displays to life, provide deeper insights into exhibits, and create an immersive environment. Proper integration requires careful planning to ensure that the AV aids complement the exhibits and do not overshadow them.

Organizational communication can be defined as the process of the flow (Transmission and Reception) of goal oriented messages between sources, in a pattern and through a medium or media. And organizational communication is the study of how people communicate within an organizational context, or the influence of, or interaction with organizational structures in communicating / organizing.

An additional elements in organizational communication (not present in interpersonal communication) is the flow pattern of messages. Thus here are 6 elements in organizational communication.

1. The transmitting source

2. The receiving source

3. Source (the target)

4. The transmitted message

5. The goal of the message

6. The medium or media and the flow pattern (which is called network). The transmitting and receiving sources are the people sending and receiving the message.

Organizational communication can be defined as the process of the flow (Transmission and Reception) of goal oriented messages between sources, in a pattern and through a medium or media. And organizational communication is the study of how people communicate within an organizational context, or the influence of, or interaction with organizational structures in communicating / organizing.

An additional elements in organizational communication (not present in interpersonal communication) is the flow pattern of messages. Thus here are 6 elements in organizational communication.

1. The transmitting source

2. The receiving source

3. Source (the target)

4. The transmitted message

5. The goal of the message

6. The medium or media and the flow pattern (which is called network). The transmitting and receiving sources are the people sending and receiving the message.

Abstract

Stress can be due to both positive as well as negative experiences, which also forms a necessary part of our daily lives. If we consider an evolutionary standpoint stress was necessary for survival (i.e., imagine hunting large prey on which one’s entire tribe is dependent) and in our modern lives also stress is important as it motivates us for the fulfillment of tasks and changes. Pressure is felt from the environment during transition period ( like at the time of high school graduation) and in preparation for some events (like job interview). Although stress can be a motivation tool, too much stress or inability to cope up with stress can have an adverse effect on the health of an  individual. This chapter represents the study on stressors, various sources of stress, outcomes of stress, and various strategies which will help an individual to cope up with stress. The study is supported by case studies which helps in understanding the chapter more clearly.

Introduction Organizational structure and management represent fundamental dimensions of community mobilization that determine how collective efforts are organized, coordinated, and sustained over time while building institutional capacity for effective action and long-term development success. The design and implementation of appropriate organizational arrangements significantly influence the ability of community groups and development organizations to achieve their goals while maintaining community ownership, democratic participation, and adaptive capacity that can respond to changing circumstances and emerging opportunities. The complexity of contemporary community challenges requires sophisticated organizational approaches that can coordinate diverse activities and stakeholders while maintaining flexibility and responsiveness to local conditions and community preferences. Effective

This practical assignment is focused on various methodologies and techniques in organizing group discussion and method demonstration. After completion of this assignment, student will be competent enough to organize group discussions and conduct method demonstration in the village.

PURPOSE

To acquaint students to solve the problem through discussion.

To evaluate information, ideas to solve the problem and understand the problem towards development of a programme of action relative to the problem.

13 1. Rishi Krishi

Drawn from Vedas, the Rishi Krishi method of natural farming has been mastered by farmers of Maharashtra and Madhya Pradesh. In this method, all on-farm sources of nutrients including composts, cattle dung manure, green leaf manure and crop biomass for mulching are exploited to their best potential with continuous soil enrichment through the use of Rishi Krishi formulation known as “Amritpani” and virgin soil. 15 kg of virgin rhizosperic soil collected from beneath of Banyan tree (Ficus bengalensis) is spread over one acre and the soil is enriched with 200 lit Amritpani.

It is prepared by mixing 250 g ghee into 10 kg of cow dung followed by 500 g honey and diluted with 200 lit of water. This formulation is utilized for seed treatment (beej sanskar), enrichment of soil (bhumi sanskar) and foliar spray on plants (padap sanskar). For soil treatment it needs to be applied through irrigation water as fertigation. The system has been demonstrated on a wide range of crops i.e. fruits, vegetables, cereals, pulses, oilseeds, sugarcane and cotton.

Introduction There is an emergence of a transformative paradigm of participatory approaches in various fields such as management, health care and education, community development, etc. Participatory approaches challenge the top-down approach used frequently for decision making (Narayanasamy, 2009). Participation is a dynamic process where two individuals exchange their ideas, thoughts, and knowledge for making proper decisions and solving the problems faced by local people. It is a process of empowering individuals that helps people make proper analysis, make their own decisions, and develop their confidence. It is successfully used in increasing self-help activities of local people and for proper implementation and evaluation of large scale projects. FAO has reported that through participatory programmes it is very easy to mobilise local knowledge for self-reliant development, reducing government assistance costs.

P.C. Method of factor analysis: Principal-component’s method or simply P.C. Method of factor analysis, was developed by Hotelling. This \method searches to maximize the sum of squared loadings of each factor extracted. Accordingly P.C. factor determines more variance than would the loadings obtained from any other method of factoring.

Abstract

Packaging industry is considered to be one of the world’s largest industrial sectors. In the past few years, food processing has undergone several paradigm changes with respect to production, distribution, storage, processing and retailing. This increasing dynamism in the food industry, while on one hand placing a lot of challenges on the packaging industries, is on the other hand opening up opportunities for entrepreneurs to foray into food processing and also packaging industries and develop appropriate solutions in response to the needs of the market and environment. This study aims at exploring the state of packaging industry and packaging technologies in developing countries, with special emphasis on India, against the backdrop of increasing concern for prevention of food losses and therefore highlighting the need for new innovative ideas for food packaging. The authors posit that customer awareness about safety of processed food has given rise to tremendous possibilities of entrepreneurship opportunities in the area of safe and hygiene packaging. However market preferences, state reputations and cost benefit analysis play major roles in packaging of processed food products.

Introduction
Panch Parivartan, which translates to “Five Transformations,” is an innovative framework that uses information technology (IT) to catalyze a profound and holistic transformation across multiple sectors of society, governance, and the economy. This framework aims to create a sustainable and inclusive model for development by leveraging IT to drive change in key areas, including governance, economic growth, social equity, education, and environmental sustainability. In India’s development, particularly in the drive towards a Viksit Bharat (Developed
India) by 2047, the Panch Parivartan framework outlines a roadmap where IT is the backbone for achieving transformative change. Through the strategic deployment of IT solutions, the framework seeks to address complex challenges, unlock new opportunities, and pave the way for a more equitable, efficient, and sustainable society.

Panchayati Raj is the oldest system of local government in the Indian subcontinent. Panchayati Raj Institutions have been in existence in India for a long time. In the old Sanskrit scriptures, word 'Panchayatan' has been mentioned which means a group of five persons, including a spiritual man. In the Rigveda, there is a mention of Sabha, Samiti and Vidatha as local selfunits. These were the democratic bodies at the local level. The king used to get the approval of these bodies regarding certain functions and decisions.

After independence, as a development initiative, India had implemented the Community Development Programmes (CDP) on the eve of Gandhi Jayanti, the 2nd October, 1952.The National Extension Service followed the Community Development Programme as the vehicle through which idea of Community Development would be worked and to build up an administrative system which can tackle the welfare problems of growth at the local level. The Balvantray Mehta Study Team was appointed in January 1957 to study and to make report on the Community Development Projects and National Extension Service .The Team brought to focus the areas mentioned below:

India has experienced marked changes, both at international and national levels. Technological progress, ICT penetration in rural and urban areas, and changes in current government policies have resulted in changes in the country’s social structure and power relations. The government initiated various programmes like Rashtriya Mahila Kosh (RMK), Development of Women and Children in Rural Areas (DWCRA), Mahila e-Haat, and Support to Training & Employment Programme (STEP) etc. are there to improve the state of rural women. 

11.1 Introduction

Pandas is an open-source Python Library providing high-performance data manipulation and analysis tool using its powerful data structures. The name Pandas is derived from the word Panel Data - an Econometrics from Multidimensional data.

In 2008, developer Wes McKinney started developing pandas when in need of high performance, flexible tool for analysis of data.

Prior to Pandas, Python was majorly used for data munging and preparation. It had very little contribution towards data analysis. Pandas solved this problem. Using Pandas, we can accomplish five typical steps in the processing and analysis of data, regardless of the origin of data - load, prepare, manipulate, model, and analyze.

Python with Pandas is used in a wide range of fields including academic and commercial domains including finance, economics, Statistics, analytics, etc.

Introduction

Enough literature is available to understand the concept of extension. But are there any efforts to understand the in-tensions of ex-tension? Why should we emphasize on inner tensions of extension? to be a successful extension professional for bringing about the desirable changes in the behaviour of stakeholders, we need to understand the inner-tensions of extension in addition to the concept of extension.

Since inception of extension services, the model adopted for transfer of technology was dominated Technology, wherein the core emphasis was on the transfer of technology. The end product was the partial adoption of the technology or non-adoption of the technology. Learning from the experiences, modifications were made in the model and came out with extension mediated technology transfer system, wherein the technology is inseparable component of extension, which was combined with the human element or the societal element. The approaches adopted by different models of extension service delivery were also diverse.

The first model of extension service delivery the Public extension system or the Ministry of Agriculture, which delivers the extension services in the form of a systems approach. The relationship with the farmers or the end users is ‘take it or leave it’. Whether the receivers are gaining it or not, whether they do understand it or not, ultimately we are transferring it, and are ending it with the target oriented approach.

Abstract

The participation level of farm women in economic activities of self-help groups to know the socio-economic factors contributing to their participation in such groups and the constraints faced by them was studied during 2004-05 at Kadur taluk of Chikkamagalore district of Karnataka. Apart from these findings on the factors affecting their involvement in SHGs and the problems faced by them, the study also revealed that majority of farm women had medium level of family income, mass media participation and, low level of communication status.

Abstract

Jasmine production in coastal Karnataka was confined to only few farmers with some specified pockets of coasted belt. Only a hand full of farm women in Belman, Manchakal areas were cultivating jasmine successively. The scientists of Extension Education Unit (EEU), Mangalore Campus of University of Agricultural Sciences, Bangalore visited the area and conducted a Survey during September 2001 and gathered information about farmers practicing jasmine production in the area and came out with some success stories from the jasmine growing belt. The jasmine market was studied especially the demand for jasmine flowers (Udupi Mallige). It was observed that there was huge demand for Udupi Mallige. The extension specialists conducted training programmes in different locations in the coastal belt of Karnataka which are not traditional jasmine cultivated areas. As a result the technology has spread to the entire coastal belt. At present farm women are supporting themselves soley by cultivating jasmine in an area of 3-5 cents with a minimum of 20 bushes. Further, the KVK’s which are working in Udupi and Dakshina Kannada districts are also working in this direction through On Farm Testing, Frontline Demonstration, Off campus and On campus training.  Since it involves only women labourers, it is one of the most important and viable subsidiary as well as main occupation of the women folk in the district

Youth of today are the hopes of tomorrow.  They are the backbone of a country.  Youth reflect the national potentiality and represent the life blood of a nation. The future of the country lies in their hands.  What they will become, what they will do, what role they will play in the free democratic society, will depend, to a greater extent, on the period between childhood and adulthood.  They are the most potent segment of the population of a country. It is they who are to shoulder responsibility for the future development of the country.

The socio-economic development and prosperity of the rural areas depends, to a considerable extent, on the type of the youth the country side has, because the rural youth have abilities to orient themselves to go along the main stream of the development process.  The youth, a bulk of total population of the country, are the national cream and the future crown with full possession of physical built and mental tenacity and power. They are the precious human assets who can play an important role in nation building activities if opportunities are provided.  If a country can harness a creative and pervasive force like youth, it can substantially and quickly advance towards modernization. Youth are the nation builders of tomorrow. They are not only carriers of new ideas and are more receptive to new ideas, ready to bear risk and willing to work as a Team.

7.1. People’s Participation in Observation, Analysis and Planning for Rural Development

Why should people participate?

There is no controversy as to whether there should be people’s participation in the development programmes in the development programmes designed to meet the basic needs of the people. The post-mortem of any unsuccessful programmes has shown that they have invariably failed when they failed to provide an adequate place and importance to people’s participation in the planning and analysis.

There is a body of philosophy and a set of assumptions behind people’s participation in rural development. These are;

i) It should be people’s programme with government’s participation;

ii) Community needs to build up their own capacity, agents have got a catalytic role;

iii) Self- imposed changes have got permanence as compared to those imposed from outsides

iv) Holistic approaches are far better than the fragmented approaches;

v) People need certain help to solve unique problems;

Participatory technology development (PTD) is an approach to learning and innovation that is used in international development as part of projects and programmes relating to sustainable agriculture. The approach involves collaboration between researchers and farmers in the analysis of agricultural problems and testing of alternative farming practices.

Origins of participatory technology development

The origins of Participatory Technology Development can be found in a number of approaches, concepts and techniques that became popular in the 1970s and 1980s:

Farming systems research and extension, an approach that introduced social-ecomomic issues into organisations previously dominated by biological and chemical scientists. FSR/E also promoted the idea on ‘on-farm’ trials:

Appropriate technology, a concept that recognises the importance of matching the design of technology to the resources and culture of the user.

Approaches in Extension

Agricultural extension services have gone through various stages over the years, from the individual farm visits approach to the T&V approach. All these approaches are characterized to a greater or lesser extent, by a “ top- down” planning. Extension approaches mostly determine the direction and nature of the system in terms of structure, leadership, program, methods and techniques, resources, and linkages. Extension approach is a style of action within a system which embodies the philosophy of the system. Although there are many approaches to agricultural extension, there is certain commonality in them. All approaches function through non- formal education and all have agricultural content for the development of rural people.

Ministry- based General Extension

Ministry of Agriculture was entrusted with agricultural extension in a top- down manner for planning for the adoption of technologies. An increase in national production is taken as the measure of success.

All persons engaged in agriculture are the clients of this public extension who are served by extension staff. Program formulation and implementation are guided by public interest. Ministry- based extension faces difficulty in serving the majority of potential clientele and financial constraints that force it to reduce the staff. Whereas extension demands location- specific technologies and flexible decisions, the university extension is mostly top- down in nature. As the approach lacks a two- way approach the messages are not location specific. Production alternatives are absent in this approach.

The Training and Visit Approach (T&V)

Key words : Participatory GIS (P-GIS), Geo-Participatory Rural Appraisal (Geo-PRA) Social Mapping, Resource Mapping, Seasonality Maps, DGPS.

Participatory GIS

Geographical information System (GIS0 and Geographics Information Technologies (GITS) are no more restricted to the elite group of the society. Planners are busy in searching ways in merging community participation with GIS in the context of urban planning, environment equity, sustainable development etc. (Aitken and Michael, 1995, Craig and Ehwood, 1998; Talen, 2000 and Sieber, 2000). In all the cases, common thing is the linking of community participation and GIS in a diversity of social and environmental contexts. Through development, demonstration and modification of methodologies by academics and practitioners the concept of Participatory GIS (P-GIS) emerges. It is an outcome of a spontaneous fusion of participatory forms of development planning with modern information technologies. Experts gave considerable thoughts on the probing questions like whether a bottom up GIS could be successfully developed, how many community participation could be incorporated into GIS and to what context such participation would serve only to legitimize conventional top-down decision making. From these reflections only the concept of people’s participation GIS arose.

Information and Communication Technology is ruling the world in all walks of life and access to mobile phones and internet facility is growing in India at a rapid rate in recent years. However, the access to internet based technologies have confined primarily to the urban areas. Rural communities have not been able to gain to the same extent from IT. As a means of agricultural technology transfer to farmers, information technology has had a limited impact.

Initially, rural development followed a top-down approach based on the information collected through the traditional survey method. It was soon noticed that the perception of the development professionals from the “top” was at variance with the perception of the rural masses. Visits were made and extractive surveys were carried out with the help of structured formats and questionnaires. These surveys had several biases such as spatial, season, person, caste, religion, project, education, etc. These limitations led to a search for a new method for understanding rural situations. New methods and approaches such as Farming System Research (FSR), Exploratory Survey and Rapid Rural Appraisal (RRA) were attempted during the 1970s to overcome the deficiencies of conventional survey methods. Moving away from extractive survey questionnaires, two families of approaches and methods, referred to as Rapid Rural Appraisal and Participatory Rural Appraisal evolved in the 1980s and 1990s.

Origin of PRA

Participatory Rural Appraisal is ‘an approach and methods for learning about rural life and conditions from, with and by rural people’. It is defined as a family of approaches and methods to enable rural people to share, enhance and analyse their knowledge of life and conditions, to plan and act.

According to Robert Chambers (1992), there are five main trends that decorate the principal method of PRA: Activist Participatory Research, Agro-ecosystem Analysis, Social Anthropology, Field Research on Farming Systems, and Rapid Rural Appraisal.

Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) stands as a methodological framework comprising participatory and visually oriented techniques for assessing communal and group resources, discerning and prioritizing challenges, and evaluating strategies to tackle them. It serves as a research and planning approach wherein local communities, with or without external guidance, engage in a comprehensive examination of issues pertinent to their populace. The process involves identifying problems, weighing various solutions, and formulating a Community Action Plan to address the identified concerns. Central to PRA is the inclusion of diverse community perspectives in the analysis and empowering the community to lead the evaluation of its circumstances and the search for remedies. While external actors may partake as facilitators or providers of technical expertise, the autonomy of the community in driving the process is paramount.

Introdution

In developing countries, traditional methods have special advantages over modern agricultural techniques. The capital and technological skill requirements in the use of traditional technologies are generally low and their adoption often requires little restructure of the traditional societies. By adopting such indigenous knowledge, our ancestors did not face any problem of large scale pest out break or economic crisis unlike the today’s farmers. The present study focused with this central theme of research.

Indigenous Technical Knowledge refers to the unique, traditional, local knowledge existing within and developed around the specific conditions of women and men indigenous to a particular geographic area (Grenier, 1998). Indigenous Knowledge is the accumulated knowledge, skills and technology of the local people. Indigenous Knowledge has two powerful advantages over scientific knowledge like it has little or no cost, and is readily available. Indigenous Knowledge can be defined as the knowledge built up by a group of people through generations of living in close contact with nature over the years; the farmer in India had been using cow dung and cow urine as manure in the fields.

Introduction

Goats provide multiple products like chevon, milk, skin, fibre, manure and transport. Pashmina occupies a prime position among animal fibres for its firmness, warmth, durability, lightness, softness and ability to absorb dyes and moisture compared to mohair and/or wool for being free from modulation and crimps. Pashmina is highly valued fibre for manufacturing quality apparels. It has recorded its name in the Guinness Book of World Records for being costliest cloth in the world after trade ban of most precious natural fibre Shahtoosh (King of fibre) of small Tibetan Antelope known as Chiru. In India, two recognized pashmina breeds are Changthangi and Chegu. Changthangi is native to high altitude areas (3700 to 4500m) in Ladakh region of Jammu and Kashmir reared by a pastoralist nomads Changpas whose population is 1,96,000 (LADHC, 2006). The Chegu breed is distributed in cold-arid trans-Himalayan mountain ranges from Himachal Pradesh to Uttaranchal at an altitude of more than 3000 m (Thakur et al., 2006).

The modern or climate controlled greenhouse requires massive inputs of energy and cost of claddings to grow crops out of season making them high cost structures. However, growing of certain horticulture crops and their nurseries out of season is happening in a sustainable way, using the heat from the sun and soil too. These are called passive solar greenhouses designed to retain as much warmth as possible. This concept has revolutionized vegetable production in Ladakh, high altitudes and other parts of the country in winter months.

The solar greenhouse is especially successful in China and are contributing mainly in vegetable production. Solar passive greenhouses are designed in different shape size using different local and other materials keeping in view the local climate and terrain. The poly houses mentioned earlier such as, low cost polyhoses, Ladakhi poly house, solar trench, polyench are passive solar green houses. Being the opposite of the climate controlled greenhouse, the passive solar greenhouse is heated all-year round with solar energy alone, even when the outdoor temperature drops below freezing point. The indoor temperature of the structure can be higher than the outdoor temperature. The temperature can be around 25°C (45°F).

Such greenhouses have been experimented by Defence Research and Development Organization through its establishment FRL (Field Research Laboratory) now DIHAR (Defence Institute of High Altitude Research), Leh/ Ladakh since 1962 during November to the end of March, the period during which the outside temperature drops there below freezing. The average temperature in the coldest month is between -15°C and -18°C. Over the several decades of research different and effective designs of such greenhouses have been standardized which are suitable to produce fresh vegetables like most of the leafy vegetables, tomato, cole crops and potato at sub zero temperature.

Pranab Mukherjee in his budget speech delivered on 26 February 2010 announced: ‘We are now ready with the draft Food Security Bill which will be placed in the public domain very soon.’  Although no official draft has been placed on the website of the concerned Ministry, several leading organisations and individuals have questioned the adequacy of the steps proposed to be taken under the Bill for achieving the goal of a hunger-free India.  Based on Article 21 of the Constitution, the Supreme Court of India has rightly regarded the right to food as a fundamental requirement for the right to life.  Many steps have been taken since Independence to adopt Mahatma Gandhi’s advice for an antyodaya approach to hunger elimination. In spite of numerous measures and social safety net programmes, the number of undernourished persons has increased from about 210 million in 1990-92 to 252 million in 2004-06.  About half of the world’s under-nourished children are in India.  Also, there has been a general decline in per capita calorie consumption in recent decades.  Grain mountains and hungry millions continue to co-exist.

ABSTRACT

Information Technology includes computers and communication technology along with associated software. I.T. can be defined as the technology of creation, processing, storage, retrieval and transmission of data and information. Transmission of data and information between through local national, regional and global telecommunication channels are not new to us. Computer networks have been the real facilitators of data and information interchange in the individual and corporate levels. LANS and WANS are the good examples of it. Developing countries have a critical stake in how successfully they cope with the trade, environmental, energy, healthy, agricultural, industrial, population and other challenges facing them as they enter the information age. The World is experiencing an explosive growth of IT at the moment. There have been tremendous impacts of I.T. on the trade, commerce and industries of the globe.

Introduction
Integrating information technology (IT) into governance and development frameworks has revolutionized how governments engage with citizens, driving empowerment across multiple dimensions. People-centric IT solutions focus on bridging the digital divide, promoting inclusivity, enhancing accessibility, and enabling active participation in governance and economic activities. These solutions leverage mobile technology, artificial intelligence (AI), cloud computing, and blockchain to create inclusive, transparent, and user-friendly platforms, ensuring equitable access to opportunities and resources.
Bridging the Digital Divide: One of the primary challenges in empowering people through IT is addressing the digital divide the gap between individuals with access to digital technologies and those without. In many developing nations, including India, large sections of the population remain excluded from the benefits of digital transformation due to socioeconomic, geographic, or infrastructural constraints.

Agricultural sector worldwide is faced with several serious challenges as follows the spiralling demand of food, declining agricultural productivity due to natural resources degradation and increasing competition in international markets. The new millennium throws up new challenges in the Indian agriculture sector that are different from those in the past. Continuous pressure of producing more food from the same land with shrinking natural resources and marketing the product is a tough task for farmers. Public agricultural extension system with a mandate and mission, beyond transfer of technology, is needed to develop the capacities of the farming community.

Introduction

Animal husbandry and poultry rearing, in addition to offering economic participation, play an important role in securing household food security. The core notion of food security argues that everyone should have physical and economic access to the basic nutrition they require. ‘Food security is a scenario that exists when all people have physical, social, and economic access to sufficient, secure, and nutritious food that fits their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life’, according to the FAO (2002). Consequently, two requirements must be met in order to ensure food security: the first is the availability of food, and the second is the ability to purchase it. There is a propensity to define food security at the national level without examining its condition at the grass roots level with major emphasis at the household or individual level. This is because, while national food security may appear to be adequate, disparities in food security may exist among regions, groups, households, and people.

Increased crop output can increase people’s calorific intake, but protein is also essential for health, and pulses and coarse grains are essential. According to the Directorate of Economics and Statistics, DAC & FW, total pulse output in the nation was roughly 25.42 million tonnes in 2017-18, and over 23.40 million tonnes in the following fiscal year (2018-19). This demonstrates the country’s falling pulse production pattern, diminishing the availability of vegetable protein to the public. A similar trend was observed in states like Assam, where the area under pulse production declined from 1,54,706 hectares in 2017-18 to 1,50,229 hectares in 2018-19, and further fell to 1,43,962 hectares in 2019-20. The provisional data further forecasted the area to fall even further to 1,42,303 hectares in 2020-21. (Statistical Handbook of Assam, 2020 and 2021)

Introduction

Women are vital part of the Indian economy, constituting one-third of the national labour force and are considered to be the major contributor to the survival of the family. Despite progress in several indicators, gender analysis of most social and economic data demonstrate that women in India continue to be relatively disadvantaged in matters of survival, health, nutrition, literacy and social status. More than 90 percent of rural women in India are unskilled thus restricting them to low-paid occupations. Women generally have no control over land and other productive assets, which largely excludes them from access to institutional credit and renders them dependent on high-cost informal sources of credit to secure capital for consumption and for productive purpose.

Among 621.1 lakh population in Tamilnadu (according to 2001 census) 308.4 lakh are females. The people below poverty line in Tamilnadu are about 21.12 percent, out of this, women share equal percentage of poverty. In a patriarchal society, women have inadequate knowledge on various aspects and depend largely on the male siblings or husbands. They also do not have much access to credit or income as most of the expenditure is controlled by men. Even where they have some measure of control they spend most of their earnings on family needs. Estimates shows that more women and girls experience the vigour of poverty than men in poor holds because of inequalities in access to food, healthcare and education. (www.undp.org.in).

Introduction

India’s population is projected to be around 1,350 million by 2020 AD which requires food grain production of 343 million tonnes. Considering the current food grain production levels, India needs to raise food grain growth by not less than 4 percent. On the other hand the available per capita cultivable land has declined from 0.48 ha to 0.14 ha and by 2050 it may further decline to 0.07 ha i.e. for every 14 persons only one ha land will be available to produce all essential items like food, fiber, fuel, fodder, fruits etc. (Harshal et al., 2006). About 75 percent of 105 million farm families belong to small and marginal farmers with less than 2 ha and 40 percent of the rural population lives below poverty line. We often talk about self-sufficiency in food supply but the fact is that population living below poverty line does not have the purchasing power.

Introduction

Indian agriculture contributes to 25 per cent of the National Gross Domestic Product. As per Census of India, 2001, India’s total population was 1,028.6 million and the percentage of decadal growth of population during 1991- 2001 was 21.34 per cent. Thus, the main challenge is to produce enough food for increasing population.

Many new agricultural technologies and improved practices are being developed in agricultural research stations. Effective communication of these agricultural innovations to millions of farmers in rural area is essential to bring about accelerated agricultural development. The impact of demographic pressure on reducing farm size further on the one hand and the need for longer or optimum sized farms to take more advantage of modern technology on the other hand would bring into sharper focus the growing contradiction in the farming sector.