eChapters

Introduction

Cassava is an important tuber crop in India grown in 2.7 lakh hectare area with a production of 71 lakh tonnes. The average yield of tapioca is 22 tonnes per hectare. Cassava is a richest source of starch (25 to 35%) mainly processed for starch and sago. Cassava is an industrial crop of Tamil Nadu occupies 32.97% of the area and 45.98% of the production in India. (Edison et al 2006). In Tamil Nadu major traditional tapioca growing districts are Salem, Namakkal, Erode, Cuddalore, Dharmapuri and Kaniyakumari mostly as rainfed. Among the districts Salem District stands first in area (27000 ha) and with the production of 10.475 lakh MT(Anonymous, 2006).

The Agriculture sector is by far the largest employer amongst all the major sectors employing roughly half of available workforce. At the same time, agriculture is the smallest sectoral contributor to the GDP. It is ironical that the most important requirement of human being, which is the bulk of agriculture farm produce, is largely considered to be an unrewarding sector in the nation.

Though the Indian agriculture has made significant strides in the course of the last 50 years of planned development, still the farmers today are facing the consequences of host of challenges, namely dependence of monsoon, declining size of land holdings, degradation of soil & water resources, declining investment of public sectors on agriculture. So farmers are increasingly getting indebted and temptation to sell their farm land  for non-farm purposes is growing. Over 45 per cent of farmers want to quit farming says a survey conducted by National Sample Survey Organization (NSSO).

Agricultural land is still a great source of income. But the practice of unsustainable methods and improper resource management leading to successive crop failures that make agriculture non- profitable and highly  risky.  So, the interest of youth in agriculture has been declining. While most developing countries are still experiencing high population growth rates, the youth are migrating in significant numbers to urban areas. The younger generation does not consider farming as a profession and they treat it as traditional activities of their family. The farm youth think that the farming system is not capable to provide a life, therefore they are diverting from agriculture to other profession.

In conventional agriculture, spatial variability over the landscape is ignored and fertilizers, herbicides, insecticides, fungicides etc. are applied at a uniform rate throughout the crop field. Precision Farming emphasizes on the infield variability which is first recognized, located, quantified and recorded, then managed by applying farm inputs  in specific amounts at specific time and at specific locations.

The world is changing rapidly and education is facing new challenges as we move into the 21st century. For Extensionist, this means new approaches to teaching and learning are needed. Futurist John Naisbitt (1994) predicts that as structured employment opportunities decline, entrepreneurial skills will become necessary for the rural youth to compete. Additionally, acquiring skills and attitudes necessary for the youth can be achieved through youth entrepreneurship programs (Cox, 1998)

There is a challenge to convert ideas into policy and then into action to put in programmes aimed at helping the future farmers of the world.  According to UN report , Youth as a target group is not a major policy priority of most governments in developing countries. This review illustrates that youth are only occasionally visible in policy related documents.  Hazelman  (2008) emphasized based on lessons from case studies made by FAO in Asia and the Pacific,  highlighted  the importance of having a clear national policy relating to rural youth; building and utilizing youth networks and partnerships at the national, regional and international levels; organizing youth into youth-led organizations that are active and have strong leadership together with competent and committed advisors, with projects and activities that address youth and community needs; and giving priority and attention to education and training opportunities for continued learning and human-capacity building.

3.1 Introduction

Out of all methods of sampling, the most commonly used procedure in surveys is the stratified random sampling. When population units are of heterogeneous nature and if we select a sample using SRSWOR scheme then the sample selected may not be the representative sample and the estimate worked out from that sample will not be the reliable estimate of the population parameter. The estimate of sampling variance of the sample estimator obtained from that sampling scheme may happen to be very high leading to get a less precise estimate of the parameter. In such type of population, to overcome these draw backs, we use another sampling scheme known as stratified random sampling which is defined as follows.

SYNOPSIS

In all probability the ancient farmer’s market originated on the streets of villages and later on, on the streets of towns. The street food survived through decades and centuries and now it has assumed its new role in fulfilling the readymade food demand of the working people of mega cities. The street food has now more relevance to the growing urban population. With the lapse of time and migration people to the cities, the business and activities of street food got expanded in qualitative and quantitative terms worldwide.

National journals play a crucial role in the dissemination of regionally relevant research, particularly in specialized fields such as agricultural sciences. These journals act as accessible platforms for researchers, practitioners, and policymakers to share findings, innovations, and solutions tailored to local contexts. Strengthening national journals is essential for fostering knowledge exchange, promoting inclusivity in scientific communication, and addressing the unique challenges faced by different regions (Fig. 12.1).
This chapter explores strategies for improving the quality, visibility, and credibility of national journals, with examples from countries across the globe, including those outside North America and Europe. Case studies of successful initiatives are included to illustrate best practices for empowering local publishing platforms, with a particular focus on non-English publications.
12.1. The Importance of National Journals in Agricultural Sciences
Agricultural sciences are inherently context-dependent. Local factors such as climate, soil type, cropping systems, and socioeconomic conditions influence the challenges faced by farmers and the solutions that are most effective. National journals provide a vital medium for addressing these region-specific issues, enabling researchers to publish studies that may not align with the broader focus of international journals. Furthermore, these journals often cater to the immediate needs of local policymakers, extension workers, and educators, ensuring that research findings are translated into actionable outcomes.

Abstract

We are working with Soliga farmers and introducing simple ‘organic’ technologies to increase yields, diversify the farms, and conserve soil and water.  Introducing these technologies depends on a strategy of using on-farm trials for low-risk interventions and field-station trials for high-risk interventions. Low-risk interventions include the use of contour row-sowing rather than broadcast sowing, improved access to traditional varieties of seeds, and composting practices. The relatively high-risk interventions are to incorporate locally grafted high-yielding amla and related fruit trees, and selecting high-yielding local crop varieties, and crop rotation. All interventions were aimed to strengthen on-farm capacities, improve sustainable traditional technologies and enhancement of livelihood security.

5.1 String Statement

String in python is stored as individual characters i.e. indexed wise. The index by default starts with 0.

So, here P will be represented by str[0] or str[-6], y will be represented by str[1] or str[-5]

Note: strings are immutable and hence you cannot change the individual letters of string using assignment operator.

Example:

name=“shyam”

Name[0]=“A”

Result error

Family No. 1

Name and address:

Smt. Jamuna Khajuriputia

Age - 45 years, Caste - ST

Village – Rajbadei

Block – Similiguda, Koraput

Family size: A total of five members, husband Gopinath (50 years), the son Ramesh and Podu, daughter-in-law Dana and herself. Male : Female ratio is 3:2

Educational status: All members have education except daughter-in-law, Dana. The status score is 4.16 in 10 point scale.

Motives of joining SHG

Sensitization for joining SHG does not alone help to achieve immediate result. Motives when combined with inspiration, an individual is tempted to act so also the case with sample SHG who expressed motives for joining SHG as follows.

Abstract

Groundwater is one of the major sources of exploitation in arid and semi -arid regions of Rajasthan. To protect groundwater, its data on spatial distribution are important along with quantity. Analysis of quality of groundwater is also very important, because the physical and chemical characteristics of groundwater determine its suitability for agricultural, industrial and domestic usages. The importance ground water increases many fold for arid tracts like Western Rajasthan. Here quality of water is also matter of serious concern. Geostatistics methods are most advanced techniques for interpolation of Groundwater quality. The present study appraises the groundwater quality of western Rajasthan for agricultural purpose with GIS technology. Kriging Raster Interpolation technique of spatial analyst module in Arc GIS software has been used to generate the spatial distribution map of ground water for agricultural purpose. In western Rajasthan only 28% (58109 km2) of ground water falls under the category of good and is suitable for agricultural use. 

Abstract

Conventional wisdom holds that variability in rainfall represents a significant variability of agriculture production. But urbanization of the cities on one hand and climate change on theother hand areaffecting the agriculture. Surprisingly, there have been very few analyses exploring the link between rainfall variability and urbanization on agriculture production. Therefore an attempt is made in this paper to know the affect of rainfall variability and urbanisation on the cropping area. For this purposeNDVI analysis is carried out in the catchments of Osmansagar and Himayathsagar Reservoirs by using the medium to high spatial resolution multi spectral data provided by remote sensing satellites, such as Landsat TM, IRS-1C/1D LISS-III and IRS-P6 LISS-III has been used for the years1989, 1994, 1998, 2002 and 2008 for Kharif season, 1975, 1990, 1994, 1998, 2003 and 2008 for rabi season which is collected from NRSC (National Remote Sensing Centre). From this analysis it is found that the increment is more in rabi season compared to kharif season due to the increment of non-monsoon rainfall intensities and ground water withdrawal structures. The increased utilization of the groundwater is causing the reduction of inflows to the reservoirs in the recent years because whatever the rainfall that occurs in the catchment, first utilised for meeting the depleted soil moisture and ground water consequently reducing the surface runoff.

Keywords : Climate change, Urbanisation, Inflows, Cropping area, NDVI

1. Introduction

Milk is the principal source of protein and lactose in the diet. Dairy farming is viewed as a whole ecosystem of reciprocal relationships and reliance, as well as there production and safe guarding of societal values. Dairy farms are primarily made up of high-yielding dairy cows. Goats, sheep, and camels are some of the other animals employed in commercial dairy production. Milk has always been regarded as a healthy food. Milk includes more than9 other essential elements, including protein, carbs,vitamins, minerals, and lipids, in addition to calcium, which makes it critical for your bones.

Every year, about 600 million tonnes of milk are produced by over 264million dairy cows across the world. The global average for milk output per cow is around 2,200 litres. India is the world’s top milk producer followed by the United States, China,Pakistan, and Brazil. The economy of India is mostly dependent on agriculture and animal husbandry, with milk production playing a significant role. It is also the world’s largest producer of buffalo milk (FAO, 2019).

Co-operative dairy sector proved to be resilient as it continued to procuremilk from farmers and supply it to the consumers despite several logistical and other challenges. Milk production in India did not show any sign of slowdown. Milk productionis anticipated to be around 209.96 million tonnes in 2020-21, an increase of about 6.3 percent over the previous year. The estimated per capita availability of milk is expected to increase to about 425 gms /day which is more than the world average of around 315gms/day(NDDB,2020).The dairy co-operatives had a difficult year due to an influx of more milk production, a reduction in milk sales, and the building of inventories of preserved goods. Throughout the year, milk procurement by dairy co-operatives increased as it accepted diverted extra milk from farmers that would otherwise be sold to private and unorganized businesses. During the 2020-21 budget year, milk procurement by dairy co-operativesincreased by 7.9 per cent. Indian dairy co operatives have installed milk processing capacity of 66.3million litters per day,73.3million liters/day in private sector enterprises, and 2.5 million litres per day in producer companies.

This practical assignment is designed in a way that students will acquire knowledge on various development departments in the district, especially on organizational structure, functioning and activities of any agency like District Rural Development Agency (DRDA).

PURPOSE

To get the students acquainted with the organization and functioning of DRDA.

To give the students a brief idea about the organizational structure and functions of other development departments at district level.

1. INTRODUCTION

This chapter looks at ICTs in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), with a focus on several selected countries in the region. Exciting and positive developments are happening throughout SSA Africa in ICTs. For instance, in spite of extensive poverty, SSA has had the fastest growing mobile market in the world over the last five years. The mobile telephone in the region has morphed to serve uniquely African development needs, including those in rural areas. It is being used for market information, extension messages and as virtual currency. In Kenya and Uganda, mobile phone services provide cheap messages about crop price information via text messaging. In Tanzania, there are ‘market spies’, farmers who visit local markets and remain in contact with the village using mobile phones to negotiate for better prices.

In spite of the growing use of mobile telephony and other ICTs, Africa has lagged behind in harnessing ICT potential for extension and other rural development issues in comparison to countries such as China, India, and Chile. Sub-Saharan Africa has the lowest teledensity in the world (Bertolini, 2006a). Many challenges exist to ICT use in SSA, and there are concerns that many rural African communities are being further left behind through the ‘digital divide’.

1.0. Objectives

• Identifying the subject and verb of a sentence
• Understand the rules of correct writing
• Illustration of the significance of the forms of verbs according to the subject in sentences
• The practice of choosing a verb that goes with the subject of a sentence

Raster sub-setting is done to select the desired area or bands of the raster image on which the user wants to perform analysis. Raster sub-setting is done in two ways:

Spectral subset: Spectral sub-setting is done to extract few desired bands from the multiband raster image which are required for analysis.

Spatial subset: Spatial sub-setting is done to minimize the area or extent of raster image to the desired area or extent for further analysis.

Raster sub-setting in R is done by functions available in the ‘raster’ package. The following packages are required in this chapter:

10.1. Success Story of Mahila Umang Producer Company Ltd.

Mahila Umang Producer Company is established at Almora district of Uttarakhand, India. The company is fully operated by the hill women of Uttarakhand. There were 1464 members associated in this company. The company was established as a formal Farmer Producer Company in the year 2009 by the help of the promoting Non- government Organisation ‘Grassroots’. Before that it was working as a conglomerate of SHGs. 

Abstract
Small-scale farming in India, particularly through organic and innovative methods, demonstrates significant profitability potential, as evidenced by success stories in Haryana. Ramesh Chander Dagar from Akbarpur Barota earns Rs. 10 lakh annually from one hectare through integrated organic farming, leveraging solar power, greenhouses, and beekeeping. Anil Kumar in Kalri Nanhera generates Rs. 6-7 lakh per annum from a one-acre polyhouse cultivating Gerbera flowers, supported by government subsidies and niche branding under "Batan Farm." Uday Veer Singh Rana’s honey processing unit in Karnal yields Rs. 15 lakh profit from Rs. 80 lakh sales, utilizing strategic door-to-door marketing. Shemsher Rana’s polyhouse cucumber cultivation in Panipat nets Rs. 25 lakh from Rs. 60-70 lakh sales, capitalizing on high-demand markets like Azadpur Mandi. Pankaj Yadav’s Natura Greentech nursery in Gurgaon earns Rs. 5-8 lakh annually through online sales on platforms like Flipkart, offering ornamental plants and aftercare services. These cases highlight how organic farming, polyhouse cultivation, and innovative agri-ventures can transform small farms into profitable enterprises, fostering rural economic growth.
Keywords: Organic Farming, Agri-preneurship, Small Farms, Polyhouse Cultivation, Nursery Business, Profitability, Haryana, Integrated Farming, Beekeeping, Online Sales

In food production remarkable progress has been made in the last fifty years in agricultural production and self – sufficiency (Food security) has been reached. Yet nutritional security seems to be a distant goal. With depleting natural resources and increasing threat to the environment, sustainable crop production is attracting the attention of the scientists, farmers and administrators. Due to over exploitation of natural resources and indiscriminate use of agro chemicals, green revolution also brought in quite a lot of miseries which focus the urgent need to have EVERGREEN REVOLUTION that is sustainable, leading to food and nutritional security to the rural poor. At this juncture it will be more appropriate to practicing organic agriculrure through the integration of traditional wisdom and modern scientific knowledge in synergy with nature.

19.1. Eco-friendly Technologies for Rice Cultivation

A sound package of eco-friendly technologies to grow rice is being successfully adopted by a few progressive farmers in Puliangudi village in Tirunelveli district of Tamil Nadu. “The technologies work well with indigenous rice varieties such as Kitchili Samba. The cost of cultivation is substantially reduced and the organic rice fetches a premium price in the market,” says Mr. P. Gomathinayagam, a pioneer in organic farming in Puliangudi.

Introduction

Northeastern Region of India consists of eight States, viz., Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Tripura and Sikkim.  The northeastern states are located between geographical ordinates, 21° to 29°30' N and 89°46' to 97°30' E. The region, surrounded almost on all sides by Bhutan, China, Myanmar and Bangladesh, which can be broadly divided into two characteristic zones viz., Mountainous and Plain. Although distinguished in the altitude differences, both the mountain and plain are closely interrelated in terms of natural resource sharing and economic flow. According to the physiographic characters this region is divided into five physiographic units, the Assam Himalayas, the Brahmaputra valley, the Shillong plateau, the Barak valley and the Southeastern hill region. Except the Brahmaputra and Barak valleys in Assam and the Imphal valley in Manipur, the terrain is hilly and mountainous, only making 65% of the northeast an undulating land with elevations ranging from 200 to 900 m above MSL

1. INTRODUCTION

Sudan lays close to the east-centre of Africa between Latitudes 4° and 2° and longitude 22° and 28° east. It is the largest country in African continent (8.3 per cent) and Arab world and the ninth largest in the world (1.75) covering 2.59 million square kilometers of twenty six states (El Mustafa, 2005). It shares borders with Egypt, Libya, Chad, Central Africa, Zaire, Uganda, Kenya and Ethiopia. It is a criterion for absolute continent in terms of the extent and variety of vast agricultural lands, vast agricultural and pastoral country with rich cultural diversity. It homes about forty million people, seventy five per cent of which inhabit rural areas, speaking over a hundred and thirty indigenous languages and dialects. The country is a gentle sloping land with the exception of Jebel Marra Massif, Red Sea hills, Ingessena hills and the Nuba Mountains (Ahmed et al., 2004).

The Nile and its tributaries traverse it for about 900 km. The rainfall ranges from less than 50 mm in the northern desert to more than 1500 mm in the tropical rain forest in the south.

In general, the soils include aridsols (sand dunes and sandy soils), aridisols and vertisols (clay pockets in the valleys) in the North, vertisols in the central and southern clay plains and oxisols in the south. Variations in rainfall, vegetation and soils resulted in the formation of seven main ecological zones classified as follows: desert (0-75 mm, 28.1 per cent,), semi-desert (75-300 mm, 19 per cent), low rainfall savanna on sand (300-400 mm, 26.6 per cent), low rainfall savanna on clay (400-800 mm, 13.3 per cent), high rainfall savanna (800-1300 mm, 9.5 per cent), Montana vegetation region (800-1000 mm, 0.3 per cent) and flood region (800-1000 mm, 3.2 per cent) which embedded in twenty six states.

The One Nation One Subscription (ONOS) scheme is a cornerstone of India’s ambition to become a self reliant and developed nation by 2047 envisaged by Hon’ble Prime Minister Shri Narendra Modi Ji. The initiative is a significant step to enhance access to scientific and academic resources across the country. This initiative can positively impact Indian journal ratings and boost subscriptions by addressing several challenges listed below:
• Increased Access to Global Resources
• Enhanced Research Quality 118 | Promoting Excellence in Agricultural Sciences
• Support for Smaller Institutions
• Boost to Indian Journals
• Fostering Interdisciplinary Collaboration
By bridging gaps in resource accessibility and improving research output, ONOS can play a pivotal role in elevating the status of Indian journals on global platforms. While evaluating Indian Journals of Agricultural and Allied Sciences, comprehensive and inclusive databases with many characteristics listed below should be adopted so as to ensure equal focus and benefit from international exposure:
• The database should have regional and multi-lingual journals with proper translation or abstracting, interdisciplinary research output, more and new journals/technical reports/official scientific documents/conference proceedings etc, open access for smaller journals to ensure readily accessible cutting-edge research in agriculture
• The database should provide more nuanced metrics that value realistic impact and localized research contributions considering immediate practical applications
• The database should include a wide range of journals across diverse disciplines, including agriculture, forestry, veterinary sciences, and environmental science with more inclusion of regional and specialized journals, providing access to a broader spectrum of agricultural research
• The database should emphasis on journals from developing regions, which often publish research addressing local agricultural challenges. This diversity helps in showcasing research contributions from regions/countries with significant agricultural economies
• The database of agriculture-related journals should overlap with other related fields viz., environmental science, biology, and social sciences, reflecting the interdisciplinary nature of agriculture. This helps researchers access a more comprehensive set of resources
• The database have detailed subject areas, allowing researchers to pinpoint agricultural science journals within relevant subfields like:

The Internet, new information and communication technologies today are being entrenched into the fabric of our society at a very rapid rate. The Internet has emerged as an extraordinary prominent medium having a tremendous impact on and within society.

The present study has been conducted in one of the agro-ecological zones of the state of West Bengal, New alluvial zone. Four villages from Haringhata block in Nadia district were selected from the new alluvial agro- ecological zone to conduct the study. One hundred farmers were selected from the villages of Dalilpur, Mitrapur, Fatehpur, 25 respondents from each. The primary data were collected with the help of structured interview schedule by following the personal interview method. The secondary data were collected from our departmental library, internet, Department of Agriculture, West Bengal, Bidhan Chandra krishi Viswavidyalaya, etc. for establishing the conceptual framework of the study.

This chapter presents the conclusions of the research study. Based on these conclusions, recommendations relating to the effective implementation and management of Cyber Reference Service (CRS) in agricultural libraries in Maharashtra are made.

6.1 Introduction

The overall aim of this research was to investigate and analyze CRS in the Agricultural College and University libraries of Maharashtra. The study adopted a mixed-methods approach by combining quantitative and qualitative methods to achieve its aims and objectives. 

Uncertainty is an inevitable character of any system where most of the contradictory factors are either unpredictable or unfathomable. The higher is the complexity, the lesser would be the resilience. Agricultural production system, as it is managed in Indian condition, is the most vulnerable one to a plethora of uncertainties. Mostly managed in an open air rainfed conditions, it has been exposed to weather and resource uncertainties, market volatility, poor access to technology and a fragile input delivery mechanism.

Objectives

1. To estimate and assess the general status of perceived uncertainty of farmers by scale and dimension

The present research had been conducted to study the Entrepreneurial communication and the process, factors and impact in Agricultural enterprise and allied sectors of selected block of West Bengal and in the end the comparison is made. The study had been conducted at villages Radhikapur from blocks Kaliyaganj of West Bengal. A pilot study was conducted to understand the area, its people, institution, communication and extension system of these states.

An exhaustive list of respondents was prepared critically with the help of some villagers. From the list, 75 respondents from the village were selected for the study through Systematic Random sampling method. The primary data were collected with the help of structured interview schedule by following the personal interview method. The secondary data were collected from our departmental library, internet, Department of Agriculture, West Bengal, Bidhan Chandra krishi Viswavidyalaya, etc. for establishing the conceptual framework of the study.

The general objective of the study is to estimate and analyze the “Entrepreneurial communication: The process, factors and impact in Agricultural enterprise and allied sectors of selected block of West Bengal” and the specific objectives are:

1) To study the present status of the entrepreneurial communication.

2) To measure the unique features entrepreneurial communication over the general communication.

3) To generate micro level policy implementation based on the empirical research.

4) To estimate intra and inter level of interaction among dependent variable and independent variable.

5) To isolate factors impactions on Entrepreneurial behavior.

7.1: Summary

19 Independent variables and 6 Dependent variables were selected for the study respectively and measured with the help of exact scales developed by previous social science researchers or by modifying the developed scale by structured interview schedule for requirement of the study.

Independent variables selected for the study are, Age (x1), Education (x2), No. of enterprise (x3), Year of enterprise (x4), Family size (x5),Average Family education (x6), Material possessed (x7), Size of land holding (x8), Size of homestead land (x9) No. of fragments (x10), Crop yield (x11), Cropping intensity (x12), Annual Income (x13), Family expenditure (x14), Marketed surplus (x15), Marketable surplus (x16), Family labor (x17), No. of male workers (x18) and No. of female workers (x19). The Dependent variables selected for the study are, cosmopo lite Farm enterprise information (y1), localite Farm enterprise information (y2), Information seeking and responding behavior (y3), Entrepreneurial communication behavior (y4), Economical communication (y5) and Transportation cost (y6).

7.1 Summary

The presentre search hadbeenconducted to study the Entrepreneurial communication and the process, factors and impactin Agricultural enterprise and allied sectors of selected block of West Bengal and in the end the comparison is made. The study had been conducted at villages Mitrapur from blocks Haringhata of West Bengal. A pilot study was conducted to understand the area, its people, institution, communication and extension system of these states.

An exhaustive list of respondents was prepared critically with the help of some villagers. From the list, 75 respondents from the village were selected for the study through Systematic Random sampling method.The primary data were collected with the help of structured interview schedule by following the personal interview method. The secondary data were collected from our departmental library, internet, Department of Agriculture, West Bengal, Bidhan Chandra Krishi Viswavidyalaya etc. for establishing the conceptual framework of the study.

The general objective of the study is to estimate and analyse the “Productivity, Income, Livelihood and Ecology: The resilience analysis in Argo ecosystem” and the specific objectives are

• To study the present statuses of 1. Income 2. Productivity 3. Livelihood and 4. Ecological resilience of the respondence under study in a selected locale.

• To estimate the intra and inter level interaction among and between the selected sets of variables to estimate the common point of the interaction of the ‘Y’ Protected characteristics.

• To generate micro sociological policy implication based on empirical evidence.

• To isolate factors impactions on ecological resilience.

6.1 Summary

The study analyzed the economics of family migration decision and its relationship with urban informal sector and agricultural efficiency. The study is mainly based on primary survey, though various secondary data Sources have been consulted. The primary survey has been conducted in Birbhum district of West Bengal covering 300 households with equal share of rural and urban households. The selection of the district is mainly guided by the dominance of rural-urban migration and the wide prevalence of both agricultural and non-agricultural activities. By tracing the reasons of migration across the states of India, the study provides a vivid picture of the rural-urban migration in West Bengal and it is associated linkages with agricultural efficiency and urban informal sector. Sophisticated statistical and econometric tools have been utilized to justify the economic explanation of rural urban migration in West Bengal.

The present research focuses on studying the Entrepreneurial Communication of Farmer Producer Organization (FPO) Members: The Process, Impact, and Innovation. The study was conducted in selected blocks of West Bengal, with a comparative analysis being carried out.

Fifteen Farmer Producer Organizations (FPOs) located in Uttar Dinajpur and Nadia districts of West Bengal were chosen. To ensure a comprehensive understanding of the research area, a pilot study was conducted to explore the geographical landscape, understand the local population, assess relevant institutions, analyze communication channels, and evaluate the extension systems.

With the help of CBBO, an exhaustive list of FPOs was prepared to ensure a representative sample. From this list, a random sampling method was employed to select seventy-five respondents for the study. Primary data were collected using structured interview schedules conducted through personal interviews.

The main objective of this research is to gain valuable insights into the entrepreneurial communication practices of Farmer Producer Organization (FPO) members and assess their impact on entrepreneurship. Additionally, the study aims to explore potential avenues for innovation within FPOs. By conducting a comparative analysis of various FPOs in West Bengal, this research seeks to shed light on their communication processes, effectiveness, and contributions to the overall entrepreneurial ecosystem. The findings of this study have the potential to significantly enhance entrepreneurial communication practices within FPOs, promoting innovation and facilitating the growth of agricultural entrepreneurship in the region of West Bengal.

Summary

It has been found from the study that for the independent variable Family size (x1 ), the maximum is 9.00, and minimum is 2.00 where Coefficient of variation of this variable is 38.124 per cent, which shows that the level of consistency in the distribution is high. For Average family education (x2 ), the maximum is 6.00, and minimum is 1.250 where Coefficient of variation of this variable is 33.074, which shows that the level of consistency in the distribution is high. Average age (x3 ) of the respondents, the maximum is 58.00, and minimum is 12.500 where Coefficient of variation of this variable is 35.341, which shows that the level of consistency in the distribution is high. The study reveals that Average family income (x4 ), the maximum is 10833.00, and minimum is 3666.00 where Coefficient of variation is 30.796, which shows that the level of consistency in the distribution is high and Family land holding (x5 ), the maximum is 5.500, and minimum is 1.00 where Coefficient of variation of this variable is 38.241, which shows that the level of consistency in the distribution Family land of holding is high. In the study maximum and minimum House type (x6 ) of the respondents are 9.00 and 2.00 respectively where Coefficient of variation of this variable is 30.399, which shows that the level of consistency in the distribution is high. In case of material possession (x7 ), the maximum is 13.00, and minimum is 1.00 where Coefficient of variation of this variable is 70.780, which shows that the level of consistency in the distribution is medium. Source of information for migration (x8 ), the maximum is 4.00, and minimum is 1.00 where Coefficient of variation of this variable is 35.679, which shows that the distribution of the variable is high. It has been found from the study that for the independent variable money required for migration (x9 ), the maximum is 5.00, and minimum is 1.00 where Coefficient of variation of this variable is 26.639 per cent, which shows that the level of consistency in the distribution is high.

The quality and effectiveness of extension services are critical to the agricultural sector’s long-term viability and output. Farmers have been getting agricultural information from extension workers via interpersonal communication for many years. Still, the number of extension employees has been declining while the number of farming families has increased. As a result, the country’s current extension service needs to improve in reaching out to farmers with timely and relevant agricultural information. ICTs are considered a partial answer to quickly getting information to the growing number of farming households because relevant and timely information is vital in agriculture. Farmers may receive up-to-date knowledge and information on agricultural technologies, best practices, markets, price patterns, and customer preferences through its use.

Since farmers in many parts of India, including West Bengal , are becoming more mobile and internet savvy, disseminating useful real-time information about crops, soils, climate, cultivation practices, financing, produce storage, and marketing to farming communities is more important and challenging. Many concerted efforts from the government, non-government organizations, and industry are now required to make our farmers ICT -friendly so that the benefits of rapidly evolving technological advancements in farm production, storage, and marketing can be shared equally among all communities and sectors of farming.

The unpredictable and frequently tumultuous nature of events affecting farming and rural life, such as weather patterns, market fluctuations, and policy changes, is referred to as uncertainty and chaos in agricultural extension, particularly with regard to livelihoods. These factors can interfere with farmer income and agricultural output, making it difficult for extension agencies to offer consistent assistance. Adaptive management techniques, such as encouraging diversified farming methods, boosting early warning systems for weather and market trends, and improving education and training for resilience development, are necessary to address these problems. Data-driven decision-making, adaptable policy frameworks, and cooperative efforts with local communities can all aid in managing uncertainty and averting chaos, which will eventually support more stable and sustainable livelihoods for farmers.
Objectives
1. To delineate the present status of transforming and transformed livelihood in present terrains of social ecologies.
2. To find the factors contributing to transformation dynamics of rural people.
3. To estimate the intra and inter level interaction amongst and between the sets of dependent and independent variables.
4. To delineate micro-level policy based on empirical studies and deliver its implication to other social ecologies.
For the study, a total of 21 independent variables and 5 dependent variables were chosen, and each was examined using a structured interview schedule or precise scales created by earlier social science researchers for the study’s requirements.
Independent variables selected for the study are, age (x1), education (x2), family size (x3), sex ratio (x4), cost of energy consumption (x5), cost of smart phone maintenance(x6),cultivated land (x7), homestead land (x8),irrigated land (x9), cropping intensity (x10), crop diversity index (x11), yield of crop(x12), cost of cultivation (x13), on farm income (x14), off farm income (x15), total annual

7.1. Summary and Conclusion
In its recent move to attaining sustainable development goals through revamping agriculture, ICAR has focused on achieving health and nutritional status through agriculture. In doing this a database and quality information on health, hygiene and nutrition of rural women have become an imperative. Health, hygiene and nutrition are organically connected to each other. One cannot be achieved without the others. The present study has delved into the complex interactions and interrelationship between a set of 13 exogenous variables and another set of 5 consequent variables. A score of 70 rural women have been selected from Bilkumari village of Nadia district by following both random and non-random sampling methods. The stepwise regression analysis analyses for different dependent variables depict that the variables family size (x3), income per year (x4), distance from work place (x6), height (x7), weight (x8), BMI (x9), hip circumference (x12), waist to hip ratio (x13) have been recorded as to exert substantive functional impact on health, hygiene and nutrition of rural women. The factor analysis elicits the fact that instead of 18 exogenous and consequent variables together there have been 4 factors as extracted by calculating the factor loading. These factors are- health ecology, physical status, family ecology and strategic location. Sometimes we are moving in a wrong direction by concluding that if food and calorie are made available for the rural women, the health and nutrition will be achieved. The study has identified that unless proper understanding of health, hygiene, nutrition and health hazards is being build up, no external supply and services can solve the problem of malnutrition and health hazards. Thus, the study has generated huge pool of policy implications after being supported by plethora of far evidences, the output of this empirical research.

7.1. Summary of Findings

This study dealing with the examination of various advantages of commodity futures market to farmers, RMC traders and RMC officials along with the level of awareness about this market among these selected beneficiaries is presented in brief. This chapter summarizes the findings. It begins with the interpretation of the significant findings derived from both secondary and primary analysis. This is followed by suggestions, the section on major contributions of the present study to the existing body of knowledge, on the role of commodity futures market in agricultural development of the state.

This study examines how various socio-economic variables affect migration distance and happiness among toto-pullers in farm ecology, analysing 15 independent variables and their relationships with six dependent variables. The distribution patterns show moderate variability in family size, income, and material possessions, with notable variability in factors such as migration costs and water scarcity. Correlation analyses reveal that higher education, income, and land holdings are negatively correlated with migration distance, while larger family size, older average age, and better housing conditions correlate positively with longer migration distances. Regression analysis indicates that family size significantly influences migration distance, while higher education levels are associated with shorter distances. Stepwise regression confirms family size as a key predictor, explaining 20.7% of the variance in migration distance. Path analysis highlights that larger families directly increase migration distance, whereas higher education leads to shorter distances. In terms of happiness, material possession, house type, and income from livestock are positively correlated, suggesting that better living conditions significantly enhance happiness. Conversely, higher migration costs and lower education and income levels are negatively correlated with happiness. Overall, the findings underscore the critical roles of family size, socio-economic conditions, and material factors in shaping migration patterns and happiness, indicating areas for targeted interventions to improve migration outcomes and overall well-being among toto-pullers. The stepwise regression analysis identifies several key predictors of unhappiness, migration benefits, push factors, and pull factors. Material possession (x7) emerges with a negative coefficient of -0.224 and a t-value of -1.725, suggesting that while higher material possessions are somewhat linked to reduced unhappiness, this effect is not statistically significant. In contrast, total annual income from livestock per capita (x12) significantly reduces unhappiness, with a coefficient of -0.360 and a t-value of -3.826, reflecting a robust negative relationship. Family size (x1) also significantly influences unhappiness, with a coefficient of -0.299 and a t-value of -2.537, indicating that larger family sizes are associated with greater unhappiness. The model explains 51.6% of the variance in

Supervised classification is the technique to classify raster image in which prior information about the classes in the form of training sites is provided by the user. Training site represents a homogeneous area in a particular class. The spectral response pattern of training sites is used to classify the raster image.The pixels of raster imagewhich have spectral response pattern similar to that of training sites of a particular class are grouped in that class. As there is some variability in the spectral response pattern of a particular class, therefore, multiple training sites per class are taken for supervised classification. Supervised classification of raster images can be performed by various methods. Conventional methods include maximum likelihood classifier, minimum distance to mean classifier, and parallelepiped classifier. Now a days, machine learning algorithms are also gaining importance in this context. These classifying algorithms are first trained or calibrated using the data of training sites.This trained model is then validated on the independent datasets for accuracy assessment. If the accuracy of the developed model is of acceptable level, then that model is used for the classification of raster data.

In this chapter, we are going to discuss the execution of maximum likelihood classifier and few machine learning techniques for supervised classification of raster image in R software. The training sites used in this exercise are in the form of points shapefile. The raster image is classified into six classesi.e. built- up, fallow soil, riverine sand, salt-affected soil, vegetation, and water. For performing this exercise, first of all,set the working directory and import the required packages.

Supply Chain Management (SCM) in agriculture refers to a series of interconnected activities, including procurement, order fulfillment, product design and development, distribution, delivery, shipping, and customer service. These activities involve two or more organizations within the agribusiness sector working together to meet customer demand. SCM emerged in the 1980s as an integrative approach to managing the entire flow of goods, from suppliers to end-users, with an emphasis on cost-effectiveness and efficiency. It has since evolved to incorporate broader integration of business processes along the supply chain. The primary focus of SCM is on optimizing costs and ensuring the efficient movement of materials from their source to their final destination. An efficient supply chain plays a crucial role in reducing operational costs.
In contrast, a value chain focuses on a set of linked activities that add value to a product, connecting producers to processors and markets. Value chains prioritize cooperation among actors to produce high-quality products and generate equitable income for all participants. Unlike supply chains, which center on logistics and product movement, value chains also include the transfer of knowledge, finance, payments, and social capital to organize producers and communities. While supply chains begin at the point of production, value chains originate from the consumer perspective.
The Concept of Supply Chain in Agriculture
The supply chain concept is critical for addressing unique characteristics of agricultural produce, such as:
• Seasonal production patterns
• Localized production regions
• Perishable nature of produce
• Post-harvest losses of varying magnitudes
• Low price realization by farmers
• Presence of multiple intermediaries

India is an agriculture based country where more than half of the population depends upon agriculture. Agriculture is a primary source of livelihood for about 58% of the population of the country. Indian agriculture sector contributes about 17% of Indian’s gross domestic product (GDP) and provide employment to 50% of the country workforce (DES, 2019). The diverse ecohabitat of the Himalayan region of the country hosts a wide range of plant diversity as well as crop diversity on which native people rely for their food and nutritional security. The hilly regions of the country are potential source of agriculture production having diversified weather conditions comprises of temperate and subtropical climatic conditions and covers about 35% of total geographical area of the country. As far as agriculture is concern, agriculture marketing has been an important aspect of rural population as it provides essential links between farm producers and consumers.

1. Introduction

Information is necessary for the economic, social, and cultural development of individuals and communities, and libraries play a significant role in providing access to information, which is essential for this growth. These institutions function as centers of knowledge, offering a wide range of resources to their users, including books, journals, databases, and multimedia materials, in order to meet the varied requirements of their users.

In this day and age, the function of libraries has evolved beyond the confines of physical locations to encompass activities such as online platforms and digital collections. Because of the large amount of information that is accessible on the internet, people rely on libraries to help them navigate through this sea of data and locate sources that are credible and reliable.

The advancement of agricultural sciences depends on systems that are fair, inclusive, and innovative. The rating of agricultural journals requires unique considerations due to the interdisciplinary and regionally diverse nature of agricultural research. By addressing structural inequities, prioritizing accessibility, and fostering leadership, the global agricultural research community can ensure its continued relevance in solving the most pressing challenges of our time (Fig. 17.1).
This book has explored the multifaceted issues facing agricultural sciences, offering a comprehensive roadmap to create systems that uphold the highest standards of equity, innovation, and collaboration.
17.1. Reforming Journal Ratings
A key pillar of advancing agricultural sciences lies in the reform of journal rating systems. Current systems often rely heavily on impact factors, a metric that, while useful, is not comprehensive. By moving toward a multidimensional evaluation framework, we can prioritize relevance, diversity of contributions, and societal impact alongside citation metrics. Reforms could include:
• Incorporating qualitative assessments of journals, such as their contributions to underrepresented research areas or regions.
• Promoting open-access journals that adhere to rigorous peer-review standards.

Abstract

The state of Tamil Nadu has a low easterly gradient slope and there are number of rivers, big and small originate from the west flow towards east south easterly and confluence the Bay of Bengal. These were grouped into seventeen major and minor river basins, the Cauvery being the largest basin and the river is also a near perennial river. These river basins receive rainfall both from the southwest and northeast monsoons. The state has over 40,000 surface water bodies and number of major dams and reservoirs. Even then, since the rainfall of the north east monsoon, the major source of water source to these basins, occurs in short span of few days with high rainfall, neither adequate storage is there to store them nor the recharge possibility is available, thus all leading to flooding and wastage. The 40,000 and odd water bodies are heavily silted and polluted too. The paper provides an over view of all these, basin wise, and in addition, strongly advocates intra state river linkage and improvised irrigation management as the best option to save the state from its water deficiency.

Not all the scientific problems demand the detection and establishment of causal relationship among natural phenomenon. Many of the social research problems seek to study the status quo rather than the relation between two or more natural phenomenon. Few of the impact assessment studies (which are kind of causal relationship studies to an extent) also demand for knowing the status quo before and after implementation of interventions. Many other studies demand for benchmark assessment to make policy decisions. Under such circumstances, survey research is a useful research method.

In the study of rural development, there are three frameworks of analysis, viz. neo-classical, Marxian and systems approaches. While the latter two are holistic approaches, the neo-classical framework provides the underpinning of modern microfinance, with its focus on the decision making of individual economic agents towards (short-term) profit or utility maximisation. Neo-classical discussion and policy prescriptions in microfinance are directed towards creating the conditions for the operation of free rural financial markets. Institutional economists have further used the imperfect information paradigm to focus on transaction costs of credit delivery that serve to explain and justify high interest rates charged by village moneylenders (Tankha, 2002).

Introduction

The prosperity of Tamil Nadu depends on the development of rural areas. As per the 2001 Census, Tamil Nadu’s rural population was 36.2 million, amounting to 58% of the total population. Of these 90 percent are earning their livelihood through agriculture and allied activities. The agricultural situation in Tamil Nadu largely depends on the quantum of rainfall received during seasonal rainfall of South West and North East monsoon. North East monsoon which occurs around September to November is more crucial as South West monsoon which will give enormous rainfall to other Indian states is blocked by Western Ghats. So Tamil Nadu is receiving low rainfall and it also comes in three to five heavy showers during October and November. This limits the wet period (good condition for cultivation) to two to five weeks for the whole season. The wet period is further shortened by fast wind and soil type in some area. Thus, the success of the crop is largely determined by one’s capacity to exploit the short wet period. Even though the Tamil Nadu is relatively better position in tapping available ground water resources (92 percent of potential has been tapped), 82 percent of the well is owned by medium and large farmers who is only 10 per cent of total cultivators.

The past development efforts in India center around individual approach and these efforts did not bring about sustained development of people in the respective areas. In view of this, the development of the people could not be harnessed to the fullest potential. Realizing this lacuna, the group based development efforts have come up in a big way across the country in the recent years. The Government, private organizations and also the NGOs are giving due importance for the promotion and establishment of Self Help Groups (SHGs) for addressing all developmental issues. As on today, there are more than 3.37 million SHGs across the country, Tamil Nadu is one of the pioneering states in the formation and promotion of women SHGs and about 4.41 lakh SHGs are functioning in the state. Among the SHGs formed, some of the SHGs are functioning well and sustain for a longer period and others did not come up to the expectation and they did not sustain for longer period. Hence, it was considered opportune time to find out the sustainability level of the SHGs and isolate factors for variation since there was no research back up.
 
Therefore, the study was undertaken to analyse the sustainability of mixed enterprises  related SHGS in Tamil Nadu with an intention to find out the extent of sustainability at different levels.  The study was conducted in Dharmapuri District of Tamil Nadu. Five blocks namely Dharmapuri, Harur, Morappur, Nallampalli, and Pennagaram were selected from the district based on maximum number of SHGs.

Sustainability issues have infused sanity in utilizing interventions without much damage to the environment. The wisdom of the practitioners, who had over generations developed their own eco-friendly practices, is being appreciated. Recent researches have aimed at documenting, rationalizing, and blending the Indigenous Knowledge with the so called Scientific or Western knowledge so as to take care of the sustainability issues. Many researchers have contributed to this pool of knowledge by documenting many of the technologies, crop wise, area wise and operation wise and so on.

Role of Agriculture in Livelihood Systems

For the developing countries like India, where a majority of families, in both the farm and non-farm sectors, derive their livelihoods from agriculture, sustainability of agriculture cannot be discussed or even defined in isolation of the issue of livelihoods. Livelihood is defined as adequate stock and flow of food and cash with an individual or a family to meet its basic needs. Livelihood security then means secured ownership of, or access to, resources and income-earning activities, including reserves and assets to offset risks, ease shocks and meet contingencies. There are four principal ways of acquiring livelihoods by the rural households. First is the production-based livelihood. A large proportion of the small and marginal farmers gain livelihoods through production on small pieces of land. For these households, availability or access to inputs and improved methods of production are quite critical for their livelihoods. Second is the labour-based livelihood. Most of the small landholders and landless rural households derive livelihoods by selling their labour. For their livelihoods, demand for labour, wage rates and prices of food are the critical factors. Third is the exchange- or market- based livelihood. Those rural households which produce surplus food and non-food agricultural products or non-farm goods earn their livelihoods by selling these surpluses in the market. The marketing system for these products and relative prices of what they sell and what they buy, affect their livelihoods. The fourth set of livelihoods is transfer-based entitlements. The households without any income-earning asset or able-bodied person to work depend for their livelihoods on transfers from the government or other social organizations. Government’s social security and food assistance programmes are relevant for this group of rural households in fulfilling their livelihood requirements. The rural livelihood systems in the developing countries thus encompass a broad range of factors and depend on several macro sub- systems of the economy.