eChapters

Present study was conducted in an Eastern Indian State ‘Chhattisgarh’, which was purposively selected keeping in view the importance of SHG movement in empowering rural poor in Eastern Indian States, home of the largest proportion of population below poverty line. To have in-depth micro level analyses, one district of Chhattisgarh was randomly selected, which happened to be the Kanker district.

In India, majority of the people live in rural areas and are engaged in agriculture, earning a subsistence wage. Development which has been focused on them seems to have just passed by them. In India out of the 147.90 million rural households around 60 per cent are cultivation households. Eighty-eight per cent are headed by small/marginal farmers with holding less than 2 hectares (Throat, 2005). Therefore to finance this category of the poor, there is an obligation to create opportunities where credit can be used in a meaningful way.

Self Help Group (SHG) and micro finance may be said a recent movement and the literature on SHG and micro finance is relatively one of the youngest. Review of past works in the field of SHG and related issues since 1995 has been considered, which helps to identify the research gap. Therefore, studies related to SHGs were reviewed and presented covering various aspects comprehensively.
 
2.1 Profile of the SHG Members
 
Hemalatha (1995) conducted study in Haryana and found that majority of women taking up pottery activity were illiterate, Sirki making women’s education ranged from illiteracy to primary level and bakery unit were illiterate.

The concept of Self Help Group (SHG) has its roots in rural areas and it has been mooted along the rural poor to improve their living conditions. Though it is applicable to both men and women in our country, but it has been more successful among women and they can start economic activities for improving their livelihoods through SHG movement. Self Help Group (SHG) is a small voluntary association. It is informal and homogenous group of not more than twenty members. SHGs consist of maximum 20 members because any group having more than 20 members has to be registered under Indian legal system. That is why, it is recommended to be informal to keep them away from bureaucracy, corruption, unnecessary administrative expenditure and profit motive. In fact, it is a home grown model for poverty reduction which simultaneously works to empower and shape the lives of its members in a better way. Groups are expected to be homogenous so that the members do not have conflicting interest and all the members can participate freely without any fear. SHG movement has triggered off a silent revolution in the rural credit delivery system in India. SHGs have proved as an effective medium for delivering credit to rural poor for their socio-economic empowerment. In the development paradigm, SHG and micro-finance has evolved as a need-based programme for empowerment and alleviation of poverty to the so far neglected target groups (women, poor, deprived, etc.).

Based on the nature and purpose of the content, there are numerous classes of scientific communications. Theses represent the class of research communications that are of great importance to the students. Thesis is part and parcel of the master’s and doctoral programme in almost every academic institution. In some institutions, even the bachelor students are expected to submit their brief report on project.

Hypothesis testing is the statistical procedure used in order to accept or reject statistical null hypotheses. One of the major purpose for which we formulate the hypothesis is, to test the statistical significance of the relation, difference or variation etc. among given sample/s at a given point of time or at different time points.

Data collected by using different data collection methods remain meaningless until it is screened, cleaned, coded, analyzed and summarized. Data cleaning and screening mostly come under the purview of statistical logics and techniques hence not dealt with in this practical guide. Since these aspects will be dealt by the statistical experts from the allied statistical wings. Presuming that students are aware about data cleaning and screening, we will proceed further with data coding.

It is not possible that every respondent is willing to and capable of giving honest and true response. Sometimes, it is practically not possible to make the respondent reveal about personal information, but true research requires true response. When direct stimuli fail to elicit true response, then we must use indirect and extractive methods to elicit the required response indirectly from the respondents, which further can be interpreted in the relevant format. This indirect and ambiguous stimulus based methods are known as projective methods. Projective methods are technique of data collection on the person, value, attitude, emotions and motives etc. by using a highly unstructured and ambiguous stimulus (Wilkening, Wilkening & Wilkening, 1973).

Existing positive as well as negative interactions among the members of the society determine the communication structure, leadership and technology diffusion pattern within the given social system. Sociometry is a method for gathering and analyzing data on communication choice and interaction pattern of individuals, within a group in order to identify communication structure and pattern.

Communication material is the joint product of knowledge, skill and attitude base of the communicator. Further, most of the communication done on behalf of certain organization also reflects the objective, work culture, strategy and contribution of the organization. Hence analysis of communication material is of greater relevance in exploring the trends, vision, behavior and future course of action. In this chapter, we are going to discuss the content analysis; it’s meaning and practical application.

t is the method of gathering the data by seeing, hearing and then recording the observation on the phenomenon/behavior of the respondent rather than the subjects’ self-reporting of the response.

Interview method: It is a two way interactive (either face-to-face or through multimedia technology), method of data collection wherein the researchers elicit required response from the respondent by presenting stimulus in the form of series of questions pertinent to it.

Interview schedule: It is a data collection tool consisting of properly worded, sequentially arranged questions, tests relevant to objective of research.

Scientific research is always based on observable and measurable facts. This applies to physical as well as humanitarian fields of science. In order to investigate social or psychological phenomenon, most of the times we need quantified information related to the phenomenon under investigation. In order to secure this data, we need one or more method/ means of collecting observable/measurable data.

Quantitative studies are preferred over qualitative studies for their relatively higher objectivity. But many of the times, complexities involved in the occurrence of phenomenon, its causes, and consequences demand for in-depth analysis of a single unit of study. Whenever we want to study a single unit in depth both qualitatively and quantitatively then case study is the best method of research. Case study is a best tool to use, when we are interested in exploring a new phenomenon on which there is very less scientific information available and also when we are interested in formulating new hypothesis for causal study.

Every practical problem need not have a documented solution. Most of the times to solve a practical problem, we need to apply our experience, creativity and experiment with the novel solutions in order to address the problem which have no readymade solution. Under such circumstance, we will apply our knowledge and experience in selecting, planning, experimenting and evaluation of the possible solutions. This type of problem solving approach involves action research.  Action research is a type of social research that aims at gaining an insight into the problem by learning from experiences gained in an effort to solve the problem. Here, action itself is a source of knowledge.

Not all the scientific problems demand the detection and establishment of causal relationship among natural phenomenon. Many of the social research problems seek to study the status quo rather than the relation between two or more natural phenomenon. Few of the impact assessment studies (which are kind of causal relationship studies to an extent) also demand for knowing the status quo before and after implementation of interventions. Many other studies demand for benchmark assessment to make policy decisions. Under such circumstances, survey research is a useful research method.

Sampling is the process of drawing a part of population supposed to be the representative of that population.

Types: Sampling process can be either random or non-random. Most frequently we use random sampling method in our studies. But sometimes the purpose of the study demands for non-random sampling in one or other phase of sampling (Example: When we want to study the impact of life skills development programme on the disabled female beneficiaries)

In previous section we discussed about the ability of the research design to precisely detect the relationship between cause and effect under controlled conditions. But in social research it becomes difficult to conduct the research under highly controlled conditions and moreover many of the researches in social science aim at prediction rather than understanding.

As we discussed earlier, aim of science is development theory, understanding, prediction and explanation of natural phenomenon. In many of the cases we are more interested in predicting the occurrence of social phenomenon rather than explaining it or understanding its relationship with other phenomenon. Under such conditions internal validity is of less use because a relationship that is established in artificially controlled conditions (with high internal validity) may fail to express itself in natural setup due to effect of extraneous variables. When the relationship between cause and effect is weak enough to be expressed in natural setup then it is of less use in predicting the phenomenon. Under such conditions we require experiments that are conducted in nearly natural setup, so that we can generalize the findings of the research to the wider domain.

In previous sections we discussed about the validity and estimation of validity. Now the question is whether the reliable and valid measuring instrument is sufficient condition to ensure the reliable and valid results in actual experiments? What if the measuring instruments are perfectly reliable and valid but the experiment is conducted in less controlled conditions? Can we expect accurate predictions under such conditions? The answer is No.

Reliability aims at assessing the accuracy and consistency of whatsoever the measuring instrument measures irrespective of whether we are measuring what we are supposed to measure or not. Whereas the validity emphasises on the question “are we measuring what we were supposed to measure?”

To clarify the difference between reliability and validity, let us take an example of instruments that measure colour intensity. Assume, an expert develops two separate instruments X and Y to measure the intensity of green and red colour, respectively. But, the commercial manufacturer wrongly tags the red colour measuring instrument as X. When someone uses this wrongly tagged instrument for measuring the green colour intensity, whatever intensity values the instrument yields are reliable but not valid. It is so because the instrument is measuring red colour intensity accurately (hence data is reliable) but it is not measuring what it was supposed to measure –the green colour intensity (hence data is not valid).

In previous section, we discussed about the concept of the reliability and its importance. In this section, we will discuss about different types of reliability and procedures for estimation of the reliability. We already discussed that one cannot measure the reliability but of course it can be estimated.

Reliability deals with the dependency, consistency, stability, predictability and accuracy of the research data. In our day to day life, when we say that a person is reliable then it means his behaviour is predictable, his behaviour (the way he behaved in past, he is behaving now and the way he will behave in future) will be consistent and he is dependable. On other hand an unreliable person’s behaviour is unpredictably variable and he cannot be depended upon.

There can be no scientific studies which do not involve the process of measuring. Measurement process is the integral part of research activity. Measurement can be defined as the assignment of numerals to the objects or events according to set of rules.  The emphasis in this definition is on phrase ‘set of rules’. If the rules can be set up based on some rational or empirical basis, then theoretically anything can be measured. It is very much easy to understand the concept of measurement in case of physical sciences (Example weight, length, mass etc.) but it is harder understand the concept of measurement in case of psychological objects/phenomenon (intelligence, aggressiveness, attitude etc.) without understanding the predetermined rules of measurement. A rule is a guide, command that tells you what to do/how to do.

Variable is any character or attribute of the given object/set of objects which varies from object to object or from one point of time to another point of time. For example height of individuals is a variable; it varies from person to person.  Kerlinger (1973) defined variable as a symbol to which numerals or values are assigned.

Importance of variables: In previous sections, we discussed about formulating the research problem and development of research hypothesis. Variables are the building blocks of any scientific research problem and research hypothesis. When we consider a hypothesis to be relational hypothesis, we mean that it make claims about relationship between two or more variables. When we test hypothesis, as such we do not test the hypothesis, rather we test the significance of hypothesised relationship between two or more variables. Since variables play central role in observation, measurement and testing of relationship, it is of prime importance to understand the meaning of variables, different types and the way we define these variables.

Most of the scientific research studies –except few descriptive survey research studies–will have one or more hypotheses to be tested as a part of study. Hypothesis is a prediction intended to be tested in a research study (Aron, Coups, and Aron, 2012). Hypothesis is the guide which directs the purpose and process of research by indicating the dependent and independent variables to be observed, extraneous variables to be controlled and the active variables to be manipulated.

Whenever we design a scientific study it is designed in a specific contextual background to solve one or another scientific problem. Subsequently it also involves a set of variables/phenomenon operating in a particular context, set of relationships among these variables and the conditions under which they operate. Certainly, to address an unsolved scientific problem we need to carry out research by employing well defined research methodology and have an idea about possible outcomes.  For example when a extension scientist is asked to study the impact of a novel programme, he needs to understand the background and the context under which the programme was introduced, what are the developmental inputs given under the programme, to whom, when (variables), with what purpose (context), what kind of impact he/she is supposed to investigate (presumed relationship), what methods he is going to use to investigate the impact of developmental programme (research methodology) and what are the possible outcomes of the investigation and how programme interventions are related to the outcome (relationship).

Rationally selected and contextually defined research problem is the foundation to the successful research project. If the selected research problem is not in line with the interests of the researcher, available time, resources, infrastructure & knowledge base then achieving success in research process remains highly uncertain. Consequently, in addition to hindering of professional growth of the researcher, it also results in wastage of time, money and human effort. Most importantly, it may sometimes add up incorrect knowledge into scientific base, hindering the process of scientific progress. Hence the identification of the research problem and designing the problem statement is the most important step in the research process.

Term ‘Scientific research’ is too broad to be explained by using one or two definitions. One should go through the different expert views about scientific research in order to internalize the concept of scientific research. In essence a scientific research is characterized by its rigor, testability, replicability, precision, confidence, objectivity, generalizability and parsimony.

Research: Uma Sekaran (2006) defined research as an organized, systematic, data-based, critical, objective, scientific inquiry or investigation into a specific problem, undertaken with the purpose of finding answers or solutions to it.

Abstract

Agricultural produce, such as vegetables, flowers and some fruits capture higher market price if they can be produced ahead or later than the main crop season. The demand of such unseasonal products is particularly high in the fashionable markets of big cities. Good quality of the product is, however, an essential requirement to realise this price advantage. Modern technologies can pave the way to take the full advantage of high price realisation. Growing crops under protected covers is being popularised and the application of various approaches of greenhouse technology can further extend this advantage because it offers greater control over the production environment and timing of crops. There has been a consistent increase in area under greenhouse cultivation nationally and is turning out to be a useful technology for resource efficient agriculture. The types of greenhouse structures range from hi-tech climate controlled systems to very elementary trenches or solar greenhouses used in high altitude cold desert regions of the Himalayas. Greenhouse vegetable production on a commercial scale is a capital and labour intensive production system and requires proper planning for sustainable production. Higher yield, efficient resource use, earliness, off-season availability and superior quality is the hallmark of greenhouse grown vegetables. Greenhouse vegetable production can be done from very basic soil based planting to fully automated hydroponic or soilless systems. This production system requires specialised crops and cultivars which should meet the demand of high value markets.

Abstract

Vegetable crops are inherently rich sources of various health-promoting nutrients and thus they play an important role in balancing our daily diet. Being excellent source of vitamins and minerals, vegetables have a relatively variable nutrient content per unit of energy. These nutrients can be increased by proper selection of vegetables in our diet. Whereas their intrinsic quality maintains human health, the extrinsic quality has significance in determining acceptability by the consumer. Vegetables also have medicinal properties. These diversified and highly nutritive crops are of great importance in alleviating hunger and malnutrition. The present production of vegetable crops is, however, not enough to meet per capita daily dietary requirement as per dietitians’ recommendations. The vegetable production, therefore, need to be almost doubled by 2025 to meet requirement of ever increasing population from diminishing land, water and other natural resources. Although, there has been a trend of increase in production and productivity of vegetable crops since liberalization of seed trade in 1988 by Government of India, yet it has not been commensurate with the requirements. Compared globally, we are far behind in productivity of vegetable crops in spite of being second largest producer after China.

Abstract

Extreme weather conditions often cause considerable damage. Much of this damage can be mitigated if people are better prepared for impending disasters. Therefore, public authorities and private enterprises have been investing in Early Warning Systems (EWS). Environmental degradation and destruction of natural resources has been faced by humans and other organisms for hundreds of years. Some of these incidences have been caused by natural climatic and geologic processes and others by human activities. These natural disasters have been increasing over time due to factors such as urbanization, population growth, destruction of natural environment and climatic change. Biogenic and anthropogenic related environmental and natural resources degradation has direct economic and health impacts on affected regions. Land and water degradation as well as disasters such as floods and droughts have led to famine, hunger, disease, death and created many other problems. It is necessary, therefore, to keep focused on the ultimate goal of reducing disasters by all possible means. India must invest generously on infrastructure and resources for preparation of early warning systems and disaster preparedness.

Abstract

Invasion of field crops, orchards and waste-lands by weeds is a matter of concern for farmers and foresters because of the drag they inflict on productivity and the increase in cost of production involved in weed control. Science-based technologies offer workable and reliable recourse to minimizing and/or eliminating these losses to promote healthier and rewarding livelihoods. While studies have been conducted to combat brush-weed in waste-land and plantations, little work has been done on such aspects as biological control of weeds, development of herbicide resistance in weeds, and allelopathic interface of crops and weeds. In this chapter, attempt is made to assess the economics of weed management in major crops. Aspects of R&D on weed management that should be addressed for safeguarding yield in the future are highlighted with particular reference to situation in western Himalaya.

Abstract

Over the years, global climate change has negatively impacted the resources of western Himalayan region and the diversity of floral wealth has been endangered. The endangered livelihoods of agriculture based sector call for incorporating stress resistance by sustained effort that includes resort to infusion of new technologies. Biotechnology offers possible solutions to many of the intractable problems. Development and commercialization of transgenic crops have witnessed phenomenal growth in recent years. An array of traits viz. insect pest resistance, herbicide tolerance, abiotic stress tolerance, augmentation of nutritional qualities etc. have been targeted and successfully modified through plant genetic engineering. The global area of transgenic crops has seen a tremendous increase to attain 148 million hectares in 2010. Progress in understanding plant genome structure and function by high throughput characterization of genome, transcriptome, proteome and metabolome is providing new opportunities to deal with complex traits that result from interactions of a large number of genes. The other significant application of biotechnology in crop improvement has been “Marker Assisted Selection” (MAS). Development and integration of DNA based markers in the selection process has empowered the breeder to identify the desired genotypes without any interference of environmental effect or tissue specificity of expression. Cultivation of MAS derived crop varieties in the country bears testimony to the success of this technology.

Abstract

Livelihood of ~80% of rural inhabitants depends upon agriculture that relies upon the prevailing environmental conditions such as water availability and temperature. If unfavorable to the crops, these conditions would impact production and productivity leading to food-insecurity. Various abiotic stresses are generated due to the physiography that includes altitude, topography, edaphic factors, water availability and ecosystem degradation. In spite of the environmental limitations, crops have survived suggesting operation of relevant adaptive mechanisms in the native species. Indeed, novel genetic mechanisms were present and these could be utilized to improve the plant productivity under stress conditions. Also there are issues on the management of abiotic stresses, which need to be addressed. The chapter presents framework and policies on sustaining agriculture production under the situations of abiotic stress to ensure production sustainability by protecting livelihood of the inhabitants. Western Himalaya was deliberately chosen as the focus for discussion.

Abstract

Hills and mountains are an important agro-ecosystem, which have lagged  behind the plains in respect of agricultural development. The plains of India witnessed green revolution followed by white, yellow and blue revolutions, which not only increased production and productivity of food crops but helped in bringing about overall development that led to livelihood security in the rural India. The hills, however, remained technologically backward resulting in low agricultural productivity, which brought about livelihood insecurity in these areas. And this has happened despite the fact that a large number of top class institutions of the CSIR, ICAR, ICFRE, Atomic Energy 
Commission, GSI and BSI along with State Agricultural Universities have been present (in the region) and were engaged in developing technology relevant to agriculture and allied areas. However, these technologies did not reach to the end user i.e. the hill farmer for a variety of reasons. Therefore, technology development and dissemination have been accorded high priority by the state governments.

Abstract

The paper presents findings of a field study to determine the agricultural and socio-economic impact of climate change on the mountain farmers’ apple economy. The study investigates the positive and negative effects of climate change on mountain farmers’ economy. It revealed how mountain farmers in a valley were forced to abandon apple farming which destroyed their farm economy and at the same time how same climate change brought new economic opportunities. The study findings also indicate that opportunities brought by climate change seem to have a time scale. This research attempts to piece together evidence and aims to enhance our understanding of climate change impacts as observed by farming communities at very local levels. The growing threat of global warming and its effects and prevailing obscurities about the future of agriculture are all addressed in this investigation.

Abstract

The livelihood security of hill people is closely associated with hydrology of the region. The Himalayas possesses one of the largest reserve resources of freshwater in the form of snow and ice, thereby supporting livelihoods of millions of people. The physiographic constraints of the region restrict irrigation development with the result that, majority of cultivated area remains rainfed. Climate change is also a serious issue concerning hill economy. Its impact on livelihood security is dictated, among other things, through change in hydrology. In addition to highlighting hydrological issues, suggestions are offered on how to deal with water related issues to livelihood enlargement and protection.

Abstract
The western Himalayan region is rich in a variety of natural resources owing to the existence of a range of biophysical and climatic interactions. Mountain inhabitants have been living in harmony with these natural resources for generations to meet their subsistence needs out of these resources.  However, recent decades have witnessed a substantial imbalance between man and nature that has adversely affected the livelihood of native people. Several anthropogenic and natural factors are responsible for this change. Furthermore, the exposure of mountain societies to outside world has opened up a number of new livelihood options based on both natural resources and other forms of human capital. The local people have adopted some livelihood practices suiting to the changed conditions at the expense of the age-old agri-silvi-pastoral mode of livelihood. There is an emerging challenge for policy makers and planners to make developmental interventions and tailor made livelihood options suiting to the changed scenario. Several government and non-government organizations and other agencies initiated a number of programmes that focus on natural resource management vis-à-vis livelihood improvement in the region. However, for want of cause and effect analysis many of these programmes are not yielding the desired results. This chapter provides an overview of the traditionally important livelihood practices of the western Himalayan region and some of the emerging livelihood supporting activities based on natural resources of the region. A case study of Bhimtal lake catchment where transformation of traditional livelihood has taken place at a rapid pace due to the influence of tourism and urbanization has also been included to highlight the emerging scenario. The paper suggests some useful policy options for planning livelihoods in the western Himalayan region of the country.

No society can ever desire to achieve a long-term goal of sustainable development unless it builds upon its own knowledge, traditions, ethical foundations and technological endowments. The knowledge of the people particularly in drought and flood prone regions, hill areas, tribal areas and other high risk environments, has to become a building block of new technological improvements. Knowledge happens when our expectations are belied, modified and sometimes confirmed. Because the asymmetry in our expectations is influenced by our access to resources, institutions, technology and cultural platforms, we get different kinds of knowledge, even when we confront similar situations Gupta (2005). In any community living close to nature, asymmetry in knowledge generation and its utilization is inevitable. The experts exist not just in our profession, but in every profession.

Introduction
 
Intellectual property is a cluster of legally recognized rights associated with innovation and creativity, the works of the mind, as against physical products, land and other tangible resources. Even though it is intangible, intellectual property (IP) is often recognized as personal property, to be sold and traded like other forms of property. Under intellectual property law, owners are granted certain exclusive rights to various markets, machines, musical, literary, and artistic works; discoveries and inventions; and applications. But national laws normally don’t define ‘intellectual property’ as a single property right. Instead, ‘intellectual property’ is used as a convenient general term describing a range of distinct legal rights, relating to literary, artistic and scientific works; performances of performing artists; phonograms, and broadcasts; inventions in all fields of human endeavour; scientific discoveries; industrial designs; trademarks, service marks, and commercial names and designations; protection against unfair competition and all other rights resulting from intellectual activity in the industrial, scientific, literary or artistic fields.

Introduction

Indigenous peoples established distinct systems of knowledge, innovation and customary practices from their centuries old interactions with the local biodiversity and environment, relating to the uses and management of local natural resources. Today, this knowledge is looked as an important resource for research and development in different areas such as pharmaceuticals, agriculture, veterinary, jewelry, fashion and cosmetic products. This has led to rampant exploitation of such knowledge disregarding the customary practices and rules of indigenous peoples holding and preserving such knowledge as well as the biodiversity and natural resources. As a consequence, the traditional knowledge is under threat of being misappropriated or lost.

What is Indigenous Knowledge?

Indigenous knowledge (IK) is the local knowledge which is considered as the social capital of the poor. It is their main asset to invest in the struggle for survival, to produce food, to provide for shelter and to achieve control of their own lives. Indigenous knowledge is a cumulative body of knowledge, practices and manifestations maintained and developed by people with long histories of interaction with their natural environment. It forms the basis for local-level decision-making in agriculture, health, natural resource management and other activities, especially for the poor, and provides problem-solving strategies for communities (World Bank, 1998). IK is a tacit knowledge that is not easily codifiable and unique to a particular culture and society.

1. Introduction

Antheraea assamensis is lepidopteron insects of Assam which is commercially utilized for the heritage golden silk “muga”. Rearing of muga silkworm is one of the most significant traditional handloom industries restricted only to the North Eastern Region of India (N.E. India) and plays a major role in the rural economy.  Considering the ecological conditions, food plant distribution, presence of eco-types and species of diverse nature in co-existence, it is speculated that this region is a possible home of origin of Antharaea, from where radiations would have occurred (Neog et. al., 2010). Despite the fact that N.E. India is the original home of muga, earlier studies have shown that the population is declining due to depletion in genetic variability (www.cdfd.org.in/wildsilkbase/info_moths.php).

Introduction

Northeastern Region of India consists of eight States, viz., Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Tripura and Sikkim.  The northeastern states are located between geographical ordinates, 21° to 29°30' N and 89°46' to 97°30' E. The region, surrounded almost on all sides by Bhutan, China, Myanmar and Bangladesh, which can be broadly divided into two characteristic zones viz., Mountainous and Plain. Although distinguished in the altitude differences, both the mountain and plain are closely interrelated in terms of natural resource sharing and economic flow. According to the physiographic characters this region is divided into five physiographic units, the Assam Himalayas, the Brahmaputra valley, the Shillong plateau, the Barak valley and the Southeastern hill region. Except the Brahmaputra and Barak valleys in Assam and the Imphal valley in Manipur, the terrain is hilly and mountainous, only making 65% of the northeast an undulating land with elevations ranging from 200 to 900 m above MSL

Introduction

“Quality” of fish refers to the aesthetic appearance and freshness or degree of spoilage which the fish has undergone or involves safety aspects such as being free from harmful bacteria, parasites or chemicals. “Quality’’ is a term which must be defined in association with an individual product type. For example, it is often thought that the best quality fish is the one which is consumed within the first few hours of post mortem. However, very fresh fish which are in rigor mortis will be of hard texture and difficult to fillet and skin are often unsuitable for smoking or drying. Thus, for the processor, a slightly older fish which have passed through the rigor process are more desirable.

Evolution of Computer technology and advent of database concept have provided enormous opportunities to the  scientist, researchers and managers of diverse field  to create, manipulate integrate, link and analyse their data in order to generate information and knowledge. The research projects involving exploration, survey and collection of data, generally create database to maintain and analyze the data.  Almost in every sphere of life and industry this database concept/technology is used in one form or other.  Scientists and researchers of life sciences realized the importance of the database and used this technology to develop databases of different types/groups of living organisms. The database technology has eased the difficulty in designing, developing and maintaining the complex information systems.

Introduction

ICT may be defined as technologies that facilitate communication and the processing and transmission of information by electronic means. ICT is an acronym that stands for Information Communications Technology and refers to technologies that facilitate communication and the processing of information by electronic means and includes everything from radio and television to telephones (fixed and mobile), computers and the internet. Information and communication has become an increasingly powerful tool for improving the delivery of basic services and enhancing local development opportunities. Recent years have seen increases in the use of ICT in almost all spheres of rural life. Especially, the rural communities require information among others on supply of inputs, innovations, improved technologies, credit, market prices and competitors. Since the concepts, methods and applications involved in ICT are constantly evolving on an almost daily basis. It’s difficult to keep up with the changes - they happen so fast.

1. Introduction

An expert system is defined as “a computer program designed to model the problem solving ability of a human expert” (Durkin, 1994). It is also defined as “a system that uses human knowledge captured in a computer to solve problems that ordinarily require human expertise”. An intelligent computer program that uses knowledge and inference procedures to solve problems that was difficult enough to acquire significant human expertise for their solutions. It is a computer application that solves complicated problems that would require extensive human expertise. To do so, it simulates the human reasoning process by applying specific knowledge and interfaces. Expert system also uses human knowledge to solve problems that normally

Abstract

Crop cultivation is a complex process and involves a set of activities like land preparation, planting, pest control, irrigation, nutrient management, harvesting, marketing, etc. Entire cycle of crop production requires multitude of information by the farmers. Despite many efforts over the years to disseminate and transfer agriculture knowledge to the stakeholders, large amounts of expertise and knowledge are still out of reach to most of them. Agriculture knowledge may be contained in the corporate database, or it may reside undocumented inside the brain of the researchers or even stored in locations unknown to the majority of the people in the organization. Large sections of the farming community, particularly the rural folk, do not have access to the huge knowledge base acquired by agricultural universities, extension-centers and businesses. In this respect the main challenge is to find this knowledge and apply it to the decision making process involved in agriculture development.

Establishment of databases and data warehouse; knowledge discovery from database/data warehouse (KDD) and development of the mechanism of dissemination of knowledge on information networks as per requirements of user groups is gaining importance now a days. Since there is a large number of data collection agencies and equally diverse resources for which the information is collected, it is easy to visualize the heterogeneity of information. The problem is compounded by the fact that there are no common standards that are applied in data collection. Designing data warehouses to integrate the collected information poses a formidable challenge to any data warehouses architect. In order to use the information for planning and decision-making level, data have to be integrated and aggregated properly.