eChapters

Barleria, particularly Barleria cristata, is a perennial evergreen flowering shrub valued for attractive blooms, garlands, religious functions and ornamental landscaping. The crop has considerable commercial importance in southern India, while other species are used in ornamental and medicinal applications. This chapter covers the origin, distribution, genetics, botanical description and important species and varieties of Barleria. It explains suitable climate and soil conditions, propagation through seeds and stem cuttings, land preparation, nutrient management, planting and irrigation. Cultural practices such as weeding, mulching, pruning and pinching are described along with pest and disease management. Harvesting, postharvest handling and yield are also addressed.

The influence of water quality on the soil and plant growth is related to the chemical and physicalproperties of the soil, the salt tolerance of the crop, the climaticregime of the area and the method,frequencyand the amount of irrigation water applied. Irrigation water quality refers to its suitability and sustainability for use in agricultural crops. The problems thatresultfrom the use of a particular irrigation water, vary both in kind and degree, and are modified by soil, climate and crop as well as by the skill and knowledge of the water user. As a result there is no set limiton water quality, rather itssuitability for use is determined by the conditions of use which affects the accumulation of water constituents andwhichmayrestrictcrop yield.The soilproblems mostcommonlyencountered and used as a basisto evaluate water quality are those related to salinity, water infiltrationrate,toxicityanda group of other miscellaneous problems. Numerous guidelines are available for evaluation of water quality. Time to time some of theseguidelines has been updated with modification of some criteria like SAR to Adj. SAR and the Adj. R_Na and development of new concepts like water qualityIndex (WQI) whichhave increasedour predictability. Thenewguidelines are relied heavily on old ones.The modified guideline by Ayers and Westcot (1985) was foundto be themost reliabletopredict thewaterqualityforirrigation.

Irrigated agriculture is playing a major role in enhancing food and livelihood security of a country. Supply of fresh water which is an importantinput for the sustainable and economic development of agriculture are not enough to meet the requirement of all sectors of economy. Reduced water availability to agriculture from the present share of 85% of country’s water resources to about 70-75% by 2020AD wouldaffect the capacity of the country to meet the food production target, unless supplies are augmented from unconventional sources. For future agriculture there are no alternatives but to rely on non conventional sources for partial alleviation of the forecasted water scarcity. Amongthese sources extraction of marginal quality groundwater and the waste water generatedfromurban and industrial activities have thepotential to augment the water supplies. Many associatedsoil, plant and environmental problems come up when these sources of water are directly used for irrigation. For addressing theseproblems and to get more benefit from thesesourcesof water, the first step is to understand how an irrigation water source affects the soil plantsystem.Thereforeknowledge of irrigationwaterqualityiscriticaltodevelop appropriate site and crop specific comprehensive short term and long term management programs.

In this chapter, the essentials of basic statistics are explored, with a focus on obtaining all key measures of basic statistics with just a single click. Additionally, the process of creating informative data distribution graphs is also explained.

Basic Statistics

Basic statistics offer fundamental tools that help us to make sense of data. Below, you’ll find concise descriptions of key basic statistical measures.

i. Arithematic mean (average)

The average represents the central value of a dataset, calculated by summing all values and dividing by the number of data points.

ii. Median (middle value)

It is the middle value in a dataset when all values are arranged in ascending order. It’s less sensitive to outliers.

iii. Mode (most common value)

The mode is the value that appears most frequently in a dataset.

iv. Variance

Variance measures how much individual data points deviate from the mean. A higher variance indicates a greater spread.

v. Standard deviation

The standard deviation is the square root of the variance. It provides a measure of how spread out the data is.

vi. Range

It is the difference between the maximum and minimum values in a dataset.

Introduction

In chemical laboratories, the use of acids, alkalis and some hazardous and explosive chemicals is unavoidable. In addition, some chemical reactions during the analysis process may release toxic gases and, if not handled well, may cause an explosion. Inflammable gases are also used as a fuel/heating source. Thus, work safety in a chemical laboratory calls for special care both in terms of the design and construction of the laboratory building, and in the handling and use of chemicals.

For chemical operations, it is also necessary to provide special chambers. The air temperature of the laboratory and work rooms should be maintained constant at 20–25°C. Humidity should be kept at about 50 percent. Temperature and humidity often affect soil and fertilizer samples. Temperature also affects some chemical operations. Hence, maintaining the temperature and humidity as specified is critical.

15.1 Law of Mass Action

Gulberg and Waage, the two Norwegian chemists in the year 1864 stated the law of mass action in this form: ‘The velocity of any chemical reaction at any instant at a given temperature is proportional to the active mass of each of the reactants at that instant present in the system, the active mass in a homogeneous system is defined as the number of gram molecule of the substance present per unit volume i.e., the molar volume’.

The increasing use of genomics, phenotyping, remote sensing, sensors and digital agricultural technologies has generated large and complex datasets in plant science. This chapter examines the role of big data analytics in managing and interpreting these datasets for agricultural research and decision-making. It discusses applications of big data in plant science and the technological infrastructure required for data storage, processing and analysis. Cloud computing, next-generation sequencing and high-performance computing are highlighted as important technologies supporting large-scale biological and agricultural data analysis. The chapter also considers the benefits and challenges of big data, including computational requirements, data management, integration and interpretation, before outlining future opportunities for data-driven plant science.

Introduction

Salinity is a significant environmental stress for crop plants it account for about 70% of the losses in the crop yield. It adversely affects seed germination, seedling growth and different metabolic activities in plants (Begum et al. 1997). It reduces DNA, RNA and protein synthesis and differentially influences the activities of the hydrolytic enzymes (Kumar et al. 1996).

Plants are classified as glycophytes or halophytes according to their capacity to grow on high salt medium. Most crop plants are glycophytes and cannot tolerate salt stress. High salt concentration decreases the osmotic potential of soil solution creating a water stress in plants. Secondly they cause severe ion toxicity since Na+ is not readily sequestered into vacuoles as in halophytes.

The widespread nature of saline soils compounded by the geographical distribution of man’s population and agricultural practices are largely succeeded in increasing salinization in arid and semi-arid lands. Most of the crops are sensitive to even low concentration of NaCl.

Introduction Biochemical techniques are a set of methods/tools used to analyze and study biomolecules, cellular processes of body and disease diagnosis. The techniques form the cornerstone of modern research and are applied in various fields such as medical science, forensic science, drug discovery as well as environmental studies. Briefly, such techniques are used to isolate, analyze, and manipulate biomolecules such as proteins, nucleic acids, lipids, and carbohydrates. It is therefore imperative to understand the principle of biochemical techniques for pursuing a career in biological science such as Biochemistry, molecular biology or Biochemistry. Biochemical techniques offer several uses across multiple scientific areas such as: • Medical Research: In the identification of biomarkers, diagnosis of disease conditions such as diabetes and cancer and development of therapeutic interventions. • Pharmaceutical Industry: In this biochemical

Bioclimatology examines relationships between climate and living organisms, including crops, livestock and humans. It draws on biology, ecology, meteorology, architecture and physiology to explain how temperature, humidity, radiation and wind influence development, comfort, health and productivity. This chapter introduces bioclimatic indices such as the Temperature-Humidity Index, Humidex, wind chill and thermal-comfort measures. Agricultural applications include crop and livestock suitability, heat-stress assessment, housing design, work planning and development of resilient farming systems. Understanding biological responses to climatic conditions supports appropriate management interventions and helps protect productivity and welfare. Bioclimatic analysis therefore connects atmospheric conditions with practical decisions involving plants, animals and people.

Abstract

With increasing population and subsequent human requirements; the generation of municipal solid waste (MSW) has increased all over the world. In India, the safe disposal of the municipal solid waste still remaines a problem for the authorities concerned. Depending upon the nature and type of the MSW, there are physical and chemical methods for the disposal of the waste, but these methods have their own limitations. Those limitations may be overcome by biological methods. Higher number of microorganisms are present in MSW which may either be pathogenic or nonpathogenic. These microorganisms may play a vital role in bioconversion of MSW into compost. The compost thus produced is useful in increasing soil fertility and reducing the concentration of the waste.

Bioenergetics is a branch of Biochemistry that focuses on the study of energy transformation and utilization in living organisms. It primarily deals with how cells capture, store, and utilize energy to drive various biological processes essential for sustaining life. The flow of energy in biological systems operates in accordance with the principles of thermodynamics, which govern the conversion of energy from one form to another. In living cells, energy is typically obtained through biochemical reactions involving the breakdown of organic compounds such as carbohydrates, fats, and proteins. This energy is then utilized for various physiological processes like the synthesis of biomolecules, active transport of ions, muscle contraction, and nerve conduction, enabling the cell to maintain its structural and functional integrity. Thermodynamics, a branch of physical chemistry, plays a crucial role in bioenergetics as it explains the changes in energy associated with biochemical reactions. In biochemical thermodynamics, also referred to as bioenergetics, the primary focus is on how energy released from one reaction can be utilized to drive another reaction that requires energy input. This is achieved through

The diets of over two-thirds of the world’s population lack one or more essential mineral elements. This can be remedied through dietary diversification, mineral supplementation, food fortification, or increasing the concentrations and/or bioavailability of mineral elements in produce (biofortification) involving aspects of soil science, plant physiology and genetics underpinning crop biofortification strategies, as well as agronomic and genetic approaches currently taken to biofortify food crops with the mineral elements most commonly lacking in human diets: iron (Fe), zinc (Zn), copper (Cu), calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), iodine (I) and selenium (Se).

According to Watson, bio-herbicides are living entities (natural enemies) used deliberately to suppress the growth or reduce the population of a weed species. This may include an insect; a microbe or a parasite nematode. These organisms operate directly or indirectly (by producing toxins) and their mode of action proves deleterious to the weed species. The latter toxins are termed bio rationals, phytotoxins or natural herbicides and are excluded in the definition.Bio-herbicides are formulations containing plant pathogens capable of mass production in vitro that are applied directly to target weeds uniformly to kill or suppress their growth. This method employs the annual release of a bio-agent into specific weed infested fields to infest and kill susceptible weeds. At present only the potential use of fungal pathogens as mycoherbicide has been studied in depth. Exploitation of bacteria seems promising where use of viruses as biocontrol agents are problematic since they are not host specific and require vector for their transmission.

COMMON FEATURES OF BIOLOGICAL MEMBRANES

Membranes are sheetlike, just a few molecules thick and form closed boundaries between cell compartments.

Membranes contain lipids and proteins, with small amounts of carbohydrayes linked to the lipids and proteins.

Lipids in membranes are small with hydrophobic and hydrophilic portions. Lipid bilayers provide a barrier to the diffusion of polar molecules.

Characteristic functions of membranes are mediated by specific proteins, serving as pumps, channels, receptors, energy transducers and enzymes.

Membrane components associate through noncovalent interactions.

Membranes are asymmetrical, with two sides of the membrane differing from each other.

Lipid and protein molecules often diffuse rapidly in the plane of the membrane.

Central transport of ions and molecules into and out of the cell.

Generate proton gradients for ATP production by oxidative phosphorylation.

Receptors bind extracellular signals and transduce the signal to cell interior.

Introduction

After water, nitrogen is the most critical nutritive element for crop productivity and human efforts to produce food and energy have greatly changed the nitrogen cycle of the earth. Sustainable cropping systems throughout history and across the world have relied on the combination of a cereal with an N-fixing legume. In recent history, cereals have dominated global agriculture, while legume areas and productivity have stagnated or even declined. An atmosphere around us contains nearly 78% nitrogen, which is in free form. Hence it is not available to plants. At present, India produces around 206 million metric tones of foodgrains for its growing population, increased foodgrain cannot be produced unless we carefully make use of biological nitrogen. Biological nitrogen fixation is the key to sustain agricultural productivity through the application of biofertilizers in the field. However, there is an urgent need to transfer this technology on the field to farmers and industry by producing these fertilizers on large scale.

Tissue or cell samples from a living organism, different cell cultures grown in a laboratory incubator under controlled conditions, homogenates or extracts of cells and tissues, solutions of isolated and purified components (e.g. proteins, nucleic acids) can all be referred to as biological samples. As the medium of life is water, the majority of biological samples can be defined as aqueous solutions with one or more components, colloidal systems, or water-based suspensions (e.g. bacterial cells dispersed in a liquid medium). Consequently, most biochemical experiments also take place in aqueous environments. Different solids (e.g. chemical substances obtained from different companies, synthetic oligonucleotides or peptides) are also often necessary for biochemical research. In most cases, solids are dissolved in water (or sometimes in other solvents) prior to the experiments. Therefore, the methods of preparing solutions and measuring accurately the weight of the required solids will also be discussed below. Sometimes we use gases in the laboratory. These can be stored in gas cylinders (e.g. O₂), in Dewar flasks in liquid state (e.g. liquid nitrogen), or dissolved in water (e.g. HCl or NH₃). By working with gases it is very important to follow all safety instructions to avoid fire, explosions, frostbite or (in case of inhalation) asphyxia or poisoning.

The weight of living plant material contained above and below a unit of ground surface area at a given point of time, is known as plant “Biomass”. Biomass is of utter importance because it provides energy source (Roberts et al. 1987).

Biomass, which has dimensions of mass per unit, is expressed as g m^-2, kg ha^-1 or t ha^-1.

Measurement of Biomass

The area (in the crop field) under study is divided into a number of equal squares or rectangular plots measuring 1.0 m² or 0.5 m². Each square is designated with a particular number. Sample can be harvested from a small area or quadrate at the centre of each square; the remaining peripheral area serving as buffer zone (Wiegert, 1962).

Depending upon the growth pattern of plant species two different designs have been adopted for the sampling:

Biochemistry: An Overview of Biomolecules Biochemistry is a branch of science that delves into the chemical composition and interactions of cells and organisms. It focuses on the molecular structures found within biological systems, their chemical characteristics, functions, and the reactions they undergo. By studying these molecules, biochemists gain insights into the fundamental processes that sustain life. Properties of Biomolecules General Characteristics Biomolecules are fundamentally organic compounds, sharing similar properties with typical organic molecules. They obey the same physical and chemical principles, undergo similar reactions, and adhere to universal physical laws. However, their complexity and biological specificity distinguish them from simpler organic compounds. Composition and Structural Features The backbone of biomolecules is predominantly composed of carbon, which forms four covalent bonds, often exhibiting a tetrahedral geometry. Carbon skeletons can exist in diverse forms like linear,

Introduction

Several hazardous chemicals, microbes, and techniques like recombinant DNA technology are used for research and development work in research Institutes and universities. Therefore, the researchers, technical, helping and supporting staffs as well as the laboratory outputs must be kept free from contaminations. Thus, biosafety is necessary to prevent unintentional exposure/ release of hazardous chemicals, microbes/pathogens, and toxins to the laboratory staff and environment. Following the biosafety guidelines and ethical considerations are essential to maintain safety standards for the researchers as well as the environment. This chapter deals with various biosafety measures and ethical issues to be strictly followed while working in a research laboratory. The required safety level needs to be determined as per the chemical/biological materials are used in the laboratory to keep the researcher/environment safe for sustainable research and developmental activities.

Biosafety

The term biosafety is used to describe the procedure and policies needed to ensure environmental and personal safety. Biosafety refers to the containment principles, technologies and practices that are implemented to prevent unintentional exposure to pathogens, toxins, or their accidental release into the environment. A fundamental objective of any biosafety program is the containment of potentially harmful chemical/biological agents as precautionary safety measures.

Why Biosafety?

With the increasing number of countries adopting molecular biology tools and techniques in life science research and development activities, especially in the areas of agriculture and medicine, the biosafety issues are gaining importance to ensure biological safety for the public and the environment. Conducting research in safe and sustainable manner is not only a personal requirement but essential collective efforts to ensure biological safety for a clean and safe environment. This requires rules, regulations, monitoring bodies, and awareness among the workers as well as the public. Therefore, biosafety per se is an integral part of laboratory research and requires awareness among the researchers so that biological safety can be well taken care from the grassroot level.

Boron (B) de?ciency has been realized as the second most important micronutrient constraint in crop production after that of Zn in the world (Ahmed et al., 2012). However, in Nepal, B de?ciency is more wide-spread than Zn de?ciency, as 80 to 90% of soil samples were de?cient in B, 20 to 50% in Zn and 10 to 15% in Mo (Anderson, 2007). In India, B de?ciency has increased from 2% of the soil samples de?cient in B in 1980s (Katyal and Vlek, 1995) to 52% soil samples in 2000s (Singh, 2012). Total B content in Indian soils varies from 7 to 630 mg kg^–1 soil (Kanwar, 1976); being the highest in arid regions of the country and the lowest in wet humid regions of the country (Behera et al., 2009; Prasad et al., 2014). Boron de?ciency is most in the heavy rainfall areas of Western Ghats of Maharashtra, Karnataka and the eastern states of Bihar, Odisha, Jharkhand and Chhattisgarh states of India (Fig.13.1). The wide-spread de?ciency of B in India can be seen from the fact that B fertilization recorded the highest bene?t : cost (B : C) ratio in rice–wheat cropping system at Palampur (Himachal Pradesh), Ludhiana (Punjab), Faizabad, Modipuram and Varanasi (Uttar Pradesh), Pantnagar (Uttarakhand) and in rice–rice cropping system at Maruteru (Andhra Pradesh), Karjat (Maharashtra) and Jorhat (Asom) (Singh and Goswami, 2014). Response of wheat to B fertilization is also reported from Bangladesh (Halder et al, 2007).

Object: Breaking of seed dormancy to facilitate germination.

Material required: Seeds, water, sharp needle, sharp razor, sandpaper, acids, Potassium nitrate and gibberellic acid. 

Definition: Inability of a viable seed to respond the favorable environmental conditions for germination is known as dormancy.

Introduction

Man’s intervention in the evolution of plants, to adapt them to suit his needs, constitutes the practice of plant breeding. Historically regarded as an art and still too empirical to be accepted universally as a science, it has recently been described as a technology (Riley 1978). Whether art, science or technology, it certainly draws on a wide range of disciplines and embodies all those principles of organisation and management that determine success in any production-oriented programme.

Perhaps the biggest contribution that the plant breeder has made to increased production during the past 50 years has been in helping to alleviate the effects of natural hazards such as lodging, pests and diseases on crop production. While most of this progress has been through the manipulation of biotic stresses, much is still to be achieved under non-biotic stresses such as drought, salinity, temperature, etc. This argument is strengthened by the fact that in spite of the spectacular achievements made possible by the ‘Green Revolution’, the productivity level of most crop plants, including wheat and rice, has remained both low and static under stress conditions. Concerted efforts are needed through an approach of interdisciplinary research, since not much has been done to define criteria for stress assessment and evolving breeding approaches for incorporating stress tolerance in crop plants.

Expression of genetic potential for growth and yield of a crop variety is directly dependent upon the environment comprising both climate (weather) and soil components. As discussed in the preceding chapter, the term ‘salt-affected soils’ encompasses a broad group of adverse but distinct soil conditions, namely, saline, alkali (sodic) and acid soils with further variations such as coastal and inland locations as well as arid and water-logged situations (Swaminathan 1977; Bresler et al. 1982). Factors limiting growth and yield of crop plants in various categories of problem soils are different and specific. Likewise, adaptive strategies evolved by plants to cope with the prevailing edaphic stresses, such as salt stress, also vary a great deal as indicated in Table 1. It is not unexpected therefore, that even varieties within a crop often show notable differences regarding tolerance to adverse soil conditions (Epstein et al. 1980; Devine 1982; Shannon 1984; Sayed 1985). Hence, it is essential that the breeder must understand the inherent charaderistics of the problem soil with which he is concerned and should also simultaneously appreciate that basically it is the sensitivity of crop variety, rather than the soil parameters per se, that essentially determines the occurrence as well as the magnitude of actual soil problem (Rana 1977). Since the degree of tolerance (adaptation) of crop varieties to different kinds of salt affected soils is genetically controlled, it is axiomatic that it can be improved through genetic manipulations by adopting suitable breeding procedures.

A buffer is an aqueous solution consisting of a mixture of a weak acid and its conjugate base or a weak base and its conjugate acid. Its pH changes very little when a small amount of strong acid or base is added to it and thus it is used to prevent changes in the pH of a solution. Buffer solutions are used as a means of keeping pH at a nearly constant value in a wide variety of chemical applications. Many life forms thrive only in a relatively small pH range so they utilize a buffer solution to maintain a constant pH. One example of a buffer solution found in nature is blood.

C₃ cycle or Calvin cycle: It is a process of dark reaction of photosynthesis. It is also called as photosynthetic carbon reduction cycle which results in the production of sugars. It occurs not only in C₃ plants but also in C₄ and CAM pathway also. It occurs in the mesophyll cells. It is described in three stages: (1) Carboxylation, (2) Reduction, (3) Regeneration.

C₃ plants: Group of plants with calvin cycle wherein the first stable product is 3-phosphoglyceric acid, a three carbon compound. e.g., rice, wheat, barley.

C₄ cycle: C₄ cycle may also referred to as the dicarboxylic acid cycle or Hatch and Slack Cycle. The first stable product is a C₄ compounds like oxaloacetic acid. Here CO₂ molecule is accepted by phosphoenol pyruvate in the carboxylation reaction. The main purpose of this cycle is carbondioxide enrichment.

C₄ plants: Plants with Hatch-slack pathway and kranz anatomy of leaves in which the first stable product is four carbon compound, oxaloacetic acid. These plants posses high photosynthetic efficiency and low photorespiration rate. e.g., sugarcane, maize, sorghum.

Canopy management is central to achieving balanced vegetative growth, efficient light utilization, flowering, fruiting, and high-quality produce. This chapter explains the principles and objectives of training and pruning in horticultural crops. Different training systems are related to crop architecture, growth habit, planting density, and production objectives. Pruning techniques are discussed for regulating shoot growth, removing undesirable branches, improving air circulation, and maintaining productive canopy structure. Light interception and distribution within the canopy are also examined because photosynthetic efficiency strongly influences yield and fruit quality. Modern high-density orchards require precise canopy management to balance productivity, plant size, mechanization, and long-term orchard sustainability.

Carbohydrate metabolism in the cell is essentially the metabolism of glucose and other substances related to glucose in their metabolic processes. The chemical reactions involved in carbohydrate metabolism represents complex groups, sequences, and cycles of reactions which integrate at various points with the reactions concerned in the metabolism of lipids and proteins. The major types of chemical processes involved in carbohydrate metabolism may be grouped as follows: a) Anabolism of starch – Photosynthesis, b) Catabolism of starch, c) Catabolism of glucose – 1. Glycolysis and TCA cycle and 2. Oxidative pentose   phosphate pathway.
 
Plant cells “burn “ glucose for energy. Plants also produce sugars through photosynthesis. This is roughly the reverse of the burning process.

The most abundantly and commonly available compounds in the plant kingdom are carbohydrates. They comprise saccharides viz.

Monosaccharides - glucose, fructose etc.

Disaccharides - sucrose, lactose, maltose etc.; and

Polysaccharides - starch, cellulose etc.

Cellulose is the major component of plant cell wall.

The active groups in carbohydrates are aldehyde (-CHO) and ketone (=CO). In addition, they contain hydroxyl groups as well. The chemical properties of saccharides vary depending upon the number of hydroxyl groups and the presence or absence of (–CHO) or (=CO) groups.

Carbohydrates are the most abundant biomolecules on earth. They occur in nature as glucose, starch and cellulose etc. Each year, photosynthesis converts more than 100 billion metric tonnes of carbon dioxide and water into starch, cellulose and other plant products. Carbohydrates are polyhydroxy aldehydes or ketones and their derivatives. They provide 4k calories energy per gram. They promote utilization of lipids and reduce wastage of proteins. They are readily available in roots, tubers, cereal grains, sugarcane and sugar beet.

Carbohydrates have the general formula C_n( H₂O)n, indicting that they are the hydrates of carbon. Some carbohydrates also contain nitrogen, phosphorous or sulfur. They are characterized by the number of carbon atoms they contain. If n=3, they are trioses, n=4 tetroses, n=5 pentoses, n=6 hexoses and n=7 heptoses. The most common sugars in plants are the hexoses. Two or more simple carbohydrates condense together to form polymer sugars like sucrose, starch and cellulose etc. The basic condensing bond is glycosidic bond.

A carbohydrate is a large biological molecules, or macromolecules, consisting of carbon (C), hydrogen (H), and oxygen (O) atoms, usually with a hydrogen : oxygen atom ratio of 2:1 (as in water); in other words, with the empirical formula C_m(H₂O)_n (where m could be different from n). Some exceptions exist; for example, deoxyribose, a sugar component of DNA, has the empirical formula C₅H₁₀O₄. Carbohydrates are technically hydrates of carbon; structurally it is more accurate to view them as polyhydroxy aldehydes and ketones.

The term is most common in biochemistry, where it is a synonym of saccharide. The carbohydrates (saccharides) are divided into four chemical groups: monosaccharides, disaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides. In general, the monosaccharides and disaccharides, which are smaller (lower molecular weight) carbohydrates, are commonly referred to as sugars. While the scientific nomenclature of carbohydrates is complex, the names of the monosaccharides and disaccharides very often end in the suffix -ose. For example, grape sugar is the monosaccharide glucose, cane sugar is the disaccharide sucrose, and milk sugar is the disaccharide lactose.

Carbon assimilation or carbon fixation is the conversion of inorganic carbon (carbon dioxide) to organic compounds by living organisms. The most prominent example is photosynthesis, although chemosynthesis is another form of carbon fixation that can take place in the absence of sunlight. Organisms that grow by fixing carbon are called autotrophs. Autotrophs include photoautotrophs, which synthesize organic compounds using the energy of sunlight, and lithoautotrophs, which synthesize organic compounds using the energy of inorganic oxidation. Heterotrophs are organisms that grow using the carbon fixed by autotrophs. The organic compounds are used by heterotrophs to produce energy and to build body structures. “Fixed carbon”, “reduced carbon”, and “organic carbon” are equivalent terms for various organic compounds.

All life on planet Earth is carbon centered; hereditary characters are controlled by DNA and RNA, growth by proteins and activities by energy from carbohydrates and fats – all these are carbon compounds. Not only this, but the life also ends as carbon compounds CO₂ or CH₄, depending on aerobic or anaerobic decomposition. Incidentally soil fertility also depends very much on soil organic carbon (SOC). In ancient days, farmers used to apply manure to maintain soil fertility and even now, urea, the nitrogen fertilizer used in the largest amounts, is a carbon compound. All living forms on the Earth including all plant and animal species and their activities are a part of global carbon cycle. The carbon cycle is the biogeochemical cycle by which carbon is exchanged among the biosphere, pedosphere, geosphere, hydrosphere, and atmosphere of the earth.

Crop performance depends on how closely environmental conditions match genetic requirements. Cardinal temperatures define the minimum, optimum and maximum thresholds within which germination, growth and development occur. This chapter explains these thresholds and presents their relevance to major crops. It also examines rainfall, sunshine, humidity, photoperiod and other agroclimatic requirements determining where and when crops can be cultivated successfully. Knowledge of crop-specific requirements supports agroclimatic zoning, variety selection, sowing-date adjustment and assessment of climate-change impacts. Matching crops and cultivars to suitable environmental conditions reduces weather-related risk, improves resource efficiency and helps realize crop-yield potential under present and changing climatic conditions.

ALL LIVING ORGANISMS ARE MADE UP OF UNITS CALLED CELLS

All living creatures are made from 1 or more cells

All cells are produced from previously existing cells (no spontaneous generation)

All cells appear to be descended from the first cell which existed about 4 billion years ago

For a species to exist its reproductive cells must be potentially immortal (no aging)

Our bodies start from a single cell and contain about 100,000,000,000,000 (10^14) cells at maturity

I. WALL COMPONENTS – CHEMISTRY

The main ingredient in cell walls are polysaccharides (or complex carbohydrates or complex sugars) which are built from monosaccharides (or simple sugars). Eleven sugars are common in these polysaccharides including like glucose and galactose. Carbohydrates are good building blocks because they can produce a nearly infinite variety of structures. There are a variety of other components in the wall including protein, and lignin. Let’s look at these wall components in more detail:

A. Cellulose: β1,4-glucan (structure provided in class). Made of as many as 25,000 individual glucose molecules. Every other molecule (called residues) is “upside down”. Cellobiose (glucose-glucose disaccharide) is the basic building block. Cellulose readily forms hydrogen bonds with itself (intra-molecular H-bonds) and with other cellulose chains (inter-molecular H-bonds). A cellulose chain will form hydrogen bonds with about 36 other chains to yield a microfibril. This is somewhat analogous to the formation of a thick rope from thin fibers. Microfibrils are 5-12 nm wide and give the wall strength - they have a tensile strength equivalent to steel. Some regions of the microfibrils are highly crystalline while others are more “amorphous”.

Celosia is an attractive flowering crop valued for its distinctive inflorescences, bright colours and use as loose and ornamental flowers. The crop includes forms such as Cristata, Plumosa and Spicata, with the characteristic brain-like appearance of cockscomb resulting from fasciation. This chapter deals with the origin, distribution, genetics, botanical features and important varieties of Celosia. It explains climatic and soil requirements, propagation, land preparation, nutrient management, planting, irrigation and cultural practices for commercial production. The chapter also covers plant growth regulation, insect pests and diseases, harvesting, postharvest management and yield. Its practical approach makes it relevant to students, growers and floriculture entrepreneurs.

Centrifugation is a technique that promotes accelerated settling of particles in a solid-liquid mixture by the application of centrifugal force. The device that accelerates the separation with the help of centrifugal force is known as ‘Centrifuge’. The centrifuge consists of a fixed base or frame and a rotating part in which the mixture is placed and is then spun at high speed.

1. Introduction

Ornamentals include plants which have either attractive foliage or flowers. They are used for various purposes like bedding plants in the garden or as cut-flowers and have huge commercial importance in terms of nursery business. New cultivars of ornamentals, which have been developed by various plant improvement techniques (hybridization, mutation breeding and colchiploidy) are always an added attraction to the plant lovers and a highly prized commodity for commercialization.

New cultivars of ornamentals usually inherit characters of both the parents singly or in combination and produce an entirely new trait. The progenies, thus, express a range of phenotypic characters. One has to screen these plants and identify elite plant(s) having desired phenotypic characters.

Second part of this process is characterization of the selected plants. Various characters of these plants are studied as per laid down procedures, which include vegetative, floral, seed and rhizome characters. The recorded observations are then compared with the parental characters to establish their distinctiveness. Subsequently, these plants are subjected to field trials for studying their uniformity and stability of the desired phenotypic characters.

New cultivars of ornamentals have enough potential for commercialization and good source of earning on the part of breeders who may be farmers, nurseryman, and researchers. However, for claiming right over the new cultivars developed, it is now mandatory to get those new varieties registered with appropriate agencies. The registration authorities ask for every morphological details as well as parental history. Therefore, characterization is a must for the newly developed cultivars/varieties.

Life is fundamentally a complex interplay of chemical interactions and reactions. Chemistry examines the composition and properties of matter, the interactions between chemical components, and the mechanisms by which complex structures are formed. Biological chemistry, or Biochemistry, delves into these principles within the context of living systems, highlighting the intricate relationships between molecular structure and function. Understanding fundamental chemistry and its application to anatomy and physiology is crucial because the human body is composed entirely of chemical substances. Basic chemistry encompasses the study of matter, its various states, and energy in all its forms. In order to understand the basic chemistry of living let us start from the scratch of learning and remembering everything that we have learnt so far. Matter and Its Properties Anything with mass and occupying space is referred to as matter. Solid, liquid, and gas are its three main states. Mass, distinct from weight, represents the quantity of matter in an object and remains constant regardless of location. In contrast, weight depends on gravitational force. 

11.1. What is acid soil?

Acid soils refer to those soils that are characterized with the presence of higher concentration of H⁺ in soil solution and at exchangeable sites or characterized with its high proton donating capacity such as aluminium (Al³⁺) on hydrolysis gives rise to proton. Both H⁺ and Al³⁺ are responsible to contribute soil acidity. Al³⁺ causes soil acidity indirectly by generating H⁺ through its hydrolysis, while H⁺ contributes directly. Therefore, due to more abundance of H⁺, they exhibit low soil pH and low base saturation (Ca²⁺, Mg²⁺, Na⁺ and K⁺). Such soil is considered as problematic soil because plant growth is affected adversely under acidic conditions and they suffer root injuries when grown in acid soils. Besides, soil acidity interferes in the soil nutrients availability to plants, making them either deficient to plants (such as phosphorus, calcium, magnesium, molybdenum) or toxic to plants for their more availability. Under acidic condition, Al, Mn and Fe are found in more soluble form. Thus, they are taken up by the plant in such a higher level that they become toxic to plants. Phosphorus becomes immobile due to the formation of insoluble compounds with aluminium and iron under acidic conditions. Ca, Mg and Mo also become unavailable in acid soil and show their deficiency symptoms. Soil acidity also affects soil microbial growth and thus, in turn, affects the nutrient dynamics in soil. Soil acidification is induced heavily under intensive agricultural practices such as increasing leaching due to more irrigation practices, addition of fertilizers, build-up of soil organic matter and many other possible ways.

12.1. Introduction

All soils invariably contain soluble salts. However, physico-chemical and biological soil properties start degrading when excessive amount of salts are accumulated in soil, particularly in rhizosphere, due to several anthropogenic activities and environmental conditions, and crop production is severely affected. Then we refer those soils as salt-affected soil.

The need of intensive agriculture to keep pace with the increasing world population for their food requirement necessitates to bring more agricultural land area under irrigation. However, irrigation system without taking enough drainage provision and poor water quality and its poor management may make the situation worst due to the development of salt-affected soils that ensue unproductive soil and low crop yield. Crops grown on salt-affected soils suffer from high osmotic stress, nutritional disorders due to nutrient (N, Ca, K, P, Fe, Zn) deficiency, specific ion toxicities, poor soil physical conditions and as a consequence, a reduced crop productivity.

Although it is considered that the rocks and minerals on weathering lead to salt accumulation in the soil, but the salt-affected soils are not truly originated from the accumulation of such salts in situ. On the contrary, occurrence of salt-affected soils is due to receiving salts that come from other locations with water. Sea water inundation in coastal belt, irrigation with poor quality water including saline groundwater, poor drainage system, irrigation adopting unscientific ways leading to waterlogging, shallow water table etc. contribute heavily toward development of salt-affected soils. Salt-affected soils may occur under almost all climatic conditions. Their distribution, however, is relatively more extensive in the arid and semi-arid regions compared to the humid regions because of poor precipitation to leach soluble salt adequately. Since evapotranspiration greatly exceeds precipitation in these climatic conditions, the soluble salts move upward with water due to capillary action and are left behind on the surface soil and the rhizosphere, once water is evaporated. The commanding ions of accumulated salts in affected soil are sodium, potassium, magnesium, calcium, chlorides, sulphates, carbonates and bicarbonates. The nature and properties of salt-affected soils are so diverse that they require specific approaches for their reclamation and management. Therefore, it is necessary to know their origin, formation, nature, chemistry and properties in detail to classify them into groups for their proper management to maintain sustainable agriculture.

13.1. Introduction

Water is chemically benign. However, its interference in free gas exchange in soil becomes detrimental to crop growth when soils are subjected to waterlogging or plants are submerged with water.Waterlogging of soil refers to a soil condition when the soil attains a moisture regime to such an extent that oxygen is not available in the pore space in enough quantity for plant roots to respire adequately. On the contrary, detrimental gases such as carbon dioxide, methane, hydrogen sulphide, ethylene etc. accumulate in the root zone and adversely influence the growth of plants. Thus, anaerobic condition prevails in waterlogged soil causing depletion of oxygen and increase of CO₂ in root zone, which severely affects aerobic micro-organisms while harmful organisms proliferate and restrict the plant growth. Waterlogging leads to nutrient deficiencies or nutrient toxicities, root tip decomposition and eventually, reduced growth or death of the plant. Physical, chemical and biological activities in the soil are also disturbed due to low temperature. However, this is important to note that plants differ among themselves in their demand for oxygen. Even oxygen demand for same plants differs with its growth stage. Therefore, it is well understood that there is no universal level of soil oxygen that can identify waterlogged conditions for all plants. Mostly waterlogging prevails in the land due to non-permeability of the soil material, the presence of an impervious layer in soil horizon, or a high-water table.

China aster (Callistephus chinensis) is a half-hardy annual belonging to the family Asteraceae and is valued for its attractive flowers in various colours and forms. It is an important ornamental and loose flower crop, particularly suitable for garlands and floral decoration. The chapter introduces its origin, genetics, botanical characteristics and important cultivars developed by Indian research institutions. It discusses climate and soil requirements, propagation, nursery management, field preparation, planting and nutrient management. Irrigation and other cultural practices are presented along with major insect pests and diseases such as grey mould and rust. Harvesting, postharvest handling and yield considerations complete the production package

Research related to biochemical analysis has been greatly benefited due to the development of chromatographic technique, since this technique makes it possible to resolve mixtures of closely related substances on a milligram to picogram range and to identify individual components by comparison with reference standard compounds. Chromatography ‘gives information where other analytical means have failed’ [Tswett, M. (1906) The macro-chemical and micro-chemical detection of carotene. Ber. Deut. Botan.Ges. 24 : 384- 393].

Chromosomes are giant molecules of DNA

Found in nucleus: never leave except in cell division

Carry hereditary units, genes

Two homologous copies in diplod cells

Unwind when replicating or making RNA

Wind up (condense) in cell division

Attach to spindle and separate in meiosis & mitosis

Crossing over in prophase of 1st meiotic division

Chromosomes are equally distributed in mitosis, meiosis

Gametes have half the number of chromosomes as body cells

Sister chromatids are observed to split apart longitudinally in anaphase

Chrysanthemum is one of the important commercial loose flower crops in India, valued for its wide range of flower forms, colours, sizes and long-lasting florets. It is extensively used for religious offerings, garlands, Veni, bouquets and ornamental purposes. The chapter describes its origin, distribution, genetics, botanical characteristics and important annual and perennial types. It provides information on suitable varieties, climate, soil, propagation and field establishment. Production practices including nutrient management, irrigation, pinching and other cultural operations are explained systematically. The chapter also discusses important pests and diseases, harvesting, postharvest management and yield, providing a practical foundation for commercial chrysanthemum cultivation and floriculture teaching.

4.1 Climate Change

Climate change refers to long-term shifts in temperatures and weather patterns. These shifts may be natural, such as through variations in the solar cycle. But since the 1800s, human activities have been the main driver of climate change, primarily due to burning fossil fuels like coal, oil and gas. Burning fossil fuels generates greenhouse gas emissions that act like a blanket wrapped around the Earth, trapping the sun’s heat and raising temperatures. Burning of crop residues also adds to climate changes

Examples of greenhouse gas emissions that are causing climate change include carbon dioxide and methane. These come from using gasoline for driving a car or coal for heating a building. Clearing land and forests can also release carbon dioxide. Landfills for garbage are a major source of methane emissions. Energy, industry, transport, buildings, agriculture and land use are among the main emitters.