eChapters

1. Bordeaux Mixture

It was invented in the Bordeaux region of France by PM Millardet (1982).

Also called Bordo Mix.

Mixture of Copper sulfate (CuSO₄), Slaked lime and Water.

It is known locally in France as Bouillie Bordelaise.

Botanicals

Botanicals play a significant role in the development of a disease management approach that is both ecologically sound and acceptable to the environment. Plant products have been found to have fungicidal, bactericidal, and antiviral properties. It is known that 346 plant species have fungicidal, 92 have bactericidal, and 90 have antiviral properties. This proves conclusively that the plant kingdom is home to a sizable stockpile of chemicals that can control a range of plant diseases. Because many of them employ many modes of action and plant compounds are safer for species other than the targeted, there is also less chance of resistance developing.Plants and plant products known as botanicals are safer for protecting plants against pathogens.

In practical agriculture, resistance represents the ability of a certain variety to produce larger crop of good quality than an ordinary variety at the same level of insect population. During the 19^th Century, the French wine industry survived a major set-back largely due to the use of resistant root stocks imported from America and which still maintain their resistance levels against the beetle pest (Painter, 1951). Another important example of resistant variety is the U-4 variety of cotton possessing high level of resistance to the jassid, Emposasca spp. (Parnell, 1925). The excessive use of pesticide on oilseed crops needs to be minimized owing to several reasons: (i) most of the pesticides are lipophilic and are likely to be carried in the oil (ii) in a few cases like Brassica, leaves and inflorescence are consumed as saag (pot herb), (iii) the oilseed crops provide the raw material for the vanaspati industry, cosmetics, etc., (iv) many of the oilseeds and oils are directly consumed without further processing, and (v) the oil cakes are used as cattle feed. Thus there is an urgent need to exploit the non-pesticidal methods of pest control, among which the use of resistant varieties assumes a great significance. The details of each oilseed crops are given below:

Genetic resistance is the more efficient and the more environmentally friendly way to protect crops against phytonematodes. Nematode management is complex, hence, the prevention of an initial phytonematode infestation in pathogen-free areas is of fundamental importance. However, after the entry of the nematode into an area, it is virtually impossible to eradicate because it is a soil-dwelling organism. In this regard, the genetic resistance of plants to nematodes is considered one of the most efficient and economically feasible methods to prevent production losses (Matsuo et?al?, 2012). Thus, breeding for nematode resistance is essential in crop management to obtain a high yield and stable production.

Introduction

Worldwide damage due to insect pest attack accounts for 15 per cent crop losses, despite the use of insecticides which represents over US $100 billion (Krattiger, 1997). The annual cost of insect control itself amounts to US $8 billion, thus warranting immediate and economical control measures. The crop varieties developed in the past 30 years were high yielders, but unfortunately had poor storage characteristics and were highly susceptible to pest damage. Insect-pests are capable of evolving to biotypes that can adapt to new situations, for instance they overcome the effect of toxic materials or bypass natural or artificial plant resistance, which further confounds the problem (Roush and McKenzie, 1987). Under these circumstances, provision of food to the rapidly expanding population has always been a challenge facing mankind. This problem is more acute in the tropics and sub-tropics, where the climate provides a highly conducive environment for a wide range of insects and necessitates massive efforts to suppress the population densities of different pests in order to achieve an adequate supply of food. In developing countries, the problem of competition from insect-pests is further complicated with a rapid annual increase in human population (2.5-3.0 percentage) against a meager 1.0 per cent increase in food production. In order to feed the ever expanding population, crop protection plays a vital and integral role in the present day agricultural production to minimize yield losses. Currently, the crop protection practice in agricultural systems relies exclusively on the use of agrochemicals, although a few specific cases do exist, where inherent varietal resistance and biological control have been successfully employed. The exclusive use of chemical pesticides not only results in rapid build-up of resistance to such compounds, but their non-selectivity affects the balance between pests and natural predators, and is generally in favour of pests (Metcalf, 1986).

Introduction

Within the very small portion of the plant kingdom that includes the world’s crop plants, the legumes are a large group second to the cereals as sources of human food. Legumes belong to the family leguminosae with a group of bacteria, Rhizobium, which is able to utilize atmospheric nitrogen. This symbiosis which occurs in the root hairs may be the key to the success of legumes worldwide distribution. The family leguminosae includes about 18,000 species, characterized by their fruits, which are pods, by their (usually) alternate, pinnate or trifoliate leaves (Cobley and Steele, 1976). The diversity in the family ranges from hardwood trees of the tropical rain forests to the herbs of temperate pastures.

1) Phomopsis fruit rot or Blight
Diagnostic Symptoms
• Plants are attacked at all stages of growth.
• On leaves, circular to irregular, clearly defined grayish brown spots having light centers appear. The diseased leaves become yellowish in colour and may drop off.
• Several black pycnidiacan be seen on older spots.
• Lesions on stem are dark brown, round to oval and have grayish centers where pycnidia develop.
• At the base of the stem, the fungus causes characteristic constrictions leading to canker development and toppling of plants.
• On fruits, small pale sunken spots appear which on enlargement cover entire fruit surface. These spots become watery leading to soft rot phase of the disease. A large number of dot like pycnidia also develop on such spots.
• Infection of fruit through calyx leads to development of dry rot and fruits appear black and mummified (Fig.1).

Model organisms are widely used in biological researches to describe basic biological processes. When selecting living organisms as models to work with, a wide range of characteristics are used which include: 1) rapid development with short life cycles, 2) small adult size, 3) ready availability and 4) tractability. 

Canopy management is central to achieving balanced vegetative growth, efficient light utilization, flowering, fruiting, and high-quality produce. This chapter explains the principles and objectives of training and pruning in horticultural crops. Different training systems are related to crop architecture, growth habit, planting density, and production objectives. Pruning techniques are discussed for regulating shoot growth, removing undesirable branches, improving air circulation, and maintaining productive canopy structure. Light interception and distribution within the canopy are also examined because photosynthetic efficiency strongly influences yield and fruit quality. Modern high-density orchards require precise canopy management to balance productivity, plant size, mechanization, and long-term orchard sustainability.

Common Maintenance

 • Clean the exterior surface with a brush or cotton waste and plenty of water or kerosene oil.

 • Lubricate or lubricate the moving or rubbing surfaces of parts as needed.

 • Filter the chemical solution/fuel oil mixture as it is poured into the tanks. Make the caps or lids leak-proof by using gaskets.

 • Flush the equipment with clean water to clean the insides of containers, tubes, and nozzles.

Care and Maintenance of Hand Sprayer & Duster

• Dusters should be made of dry and sieved dust.

 • Grease the duster gear box once a month.

 • Clean the duster after use by removing all dust from the hopper.

 • Oil the sprayer’s cup and bucket washers on a regular basis.

 • After completing the day’s work, cleanse the spray tank discharge lines and nozzles with clean water.

i) Common Maintenance

Clean outer surface with brush or cotton waste by using plenty of water or kerosene oil.

Oil the moving or rubbing surfaces of parts with lubricating oil or grease.

Filter the chemical solution/ fuel oil mixture while pouring into the tanks. Make the caps or lids leak-proof with gaskets.

Flush the equipment with clean water to wash inside parts of containers, tubes and nozzles to be free from chemicals.

Carnation is one of the world's most important commercial cut flowers and is extensively produced under protected conditions for domestic and export markets. This chapter examines its origin, distribution, genetics, botanical characteristics, types and commercially important varieties. It describes protected cultivation, greenhouse design, climate management, soil, propagation, planting, irrigation, fertigation, pinching, disbudding, staking and growth regulation. Major pests and diseases, harvesting, grading, postharvest handling, vase life and yield are also discussed. The chapter incorporates modern cultivars, disease-resistant varieties and genetically modified colour developments, making it valuable for contemporary commercial carnation production and floriculture education

The Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety entered into force on 11 September 2003. It is a legally binding international agreement under the United Nations’ Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD).

What is a protocol ?: A protocol is a binding international instrument, separate from, but related to, another treaty. It is a separate instrument, that must be individually negotiated, signed and eventually ratified. It is only binding on States that become parties to it. It thus has its own parties, and creates separate rights and obligations for them, as any other treaty.

The unique characteristic of a protocol is that it is related to a ‘parent’ treaty, through substantive, procedural, and institutional links. Most importantly, a protocol under a specific treaty must comply with the parent treaty’s provisions authorizing and regulating the adoption of protocols under its auspices. 

6.1 Introduction
The success of design thinking depends on its applicability in industries and service organization. The applications of design thinking applied to product development should focus on the needs of users. The design thinking can also be applied to design new processes as well as improve an existing process.
6.2 Case Studies
The section presents several case studies of applying design thinking in realities as listed below.
1. Design thinking in eye care
2. Design thinking in foundry
3. Design thinking in FMG company
4. Design thinking in auto industry
5. Design thinking at retail outlet
6. Design Thinking in Flight Reservation System
7. Design thinking in winding fabric on roller in textile mill
6.2.1 Case study: Design Thinking in Eye Care
Eye care is a crucial part of health care system. There are many factors that are responsible for poor eye vision. Normally in the early stages, viz. children and adults up to 40 or 45 years of age may have eye power issues, which are managed

Cashewnut, Anacardium occidentale is one of the important plantation crops grown for its delicious kernel. It is mostly grown in coastal belts of South-West and South-East India including the states like Maharashtra, Goa, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Odisha and West Bengal and also in the non-traditional areas including inlands of central India and parts of Northeastern regions. It is an important cash crop and has attained the status of export-oriented commodity. In India alone around 200 insect pests have been reported on cashew causing damage during different stages of crop growth. Stem and root borer and Tea mosquito bugs, blossom webber and leafminer pests of economic importance, the details of which is given hereunder:

Stem and root borer, Plocaederus ferrugineus L. and P. obesus Gahan (Cerambycidae: Coleoptera)

It is a very serious pest of cashew in both east and west coasts of India. It is also recorded on sapota, drumstick and citrus trees. Among the two species, P. ferrugineus is the commonly occurring species. Eggs are pale white, ovoid and smooth measuring about 4.5 x 2.0mm. The grubs are stout, fleshy ivory yellow with dark brown head and wrinkled body without legs, and measures 75mm in length, when full grown. The adult of P. ferrugineus is a medium sized (2540mm) dark brown longicorn beetle

It all started after the famous lecture, “There is plenty of room at the bottom” given by Richard Feynman on December 29, 1959. Nanomaterials are intermediate between macroscopic solid and of atomic and molecular systems. Nanomaterials have certain properties which make them different from that of the bulk materials, including large fraction of surface atoms, high surface energy, spatial confinement, and reduced imperfections. Nanotechnology deals with various structures of matter having dimensions of the order of a billionth of a meter (Ray Unmesha. 2018). From the advent of nanotechnology, people realized that certain materials can exhibit different properties based on its size and shape.
 

Plant diseases are classified on the basis of type of pathogenic or nonpathogenic causes of the disease. The classification is based on the plant pathogenic organisms as follows.
1. Parasites
They include both biotic and mesobiotic agents. The diseases are incited by parasites under a set of suitable environment. Association of definite pathogen is essential with each disease.
i. Biotic agents: They are also called as animate causes. They are living organisms.Biotic agents include
1. Prokaryotes
a. True bacteria or bacteria (Facultative parasites) e.g. Citrus canker.
b. Rickettsia-like bacteria (RLB) e.g. Citrus greening, Pierce’s disease of grape.
c. Mollicutes or wall-less prokaryotes
i. Mycoplasma-like organism (MLO) e.g. Sesame phyllody, Egg plant little leaf.
ii. Spiroplasma e.g. Corn stunt, Citrus stubborn.

Introduction
Plant diseases significantly impact agricultural productivity and food security, causing substantial economic losses worldwide. The causes of these diseases can be broadly categorized into inanimate and animate factors, each contributing uniquely to plant health. Understanding these causes is essential for developing effective management strategies to prevent and mitigate disease outbreaks.
A. Inanimate Causes
a) Environmental Factors: Environmental conditions play a crucial role in the development and severity of plant diseases. Key environmental factors include:
• Temperature: Each plant species has an optimal temperature range for growth. Deviations from this range can stress plants, making them more susceptible to pathogens. For example, high temperatures can accelerate the life cycle of some fungal pathogens, while low temperatures can inhibit plant growth, creating conditions conducive to disease.
• Moisture: Water is essential for plant growth, but too much of it can become a problem. High humidity levels and frequent rainfall create an ideal environment for many fungal diseases. Pathogens like Phytophthora and Fusarium thrive under such wet conditions, spreading rapidly in overly moist soils or plant canopies. On the flip side, drought can also lead to trouble. When plants are under water stress, their natural defenses weaken, making them easier targets for both disease-causing organisms (biotic stress) and harmful environmental factors (abiotic stress).

1. Introduction
Animal experimentation remains a cornerstone of scientific research in many fields, from medical advances to pharmaceutical testing. However, the ethical treatment of laboratory animals has become a point of significant concern worldwide. India, through the Committee for the Control and Supervision of Experiments on Animals (CCSEA), ensures that ethical standards are maintained in research institutions. Established under the Ministry of Environment, Forests, and Climate Change (MoEF&CC), CCSEA is tasked with overseeing the use of animals in experiments, ensuring that procedures adhere to ethical guidelines and international norms. CCSEA’s guidelines are in line with international standards set forth by organizations such as the International Council for Laboratory Animal Science (ICLAS) and the European Union (EU), but they are tailored to address local needs and conditions. The guidelines, which focus on the welfare of laboratory animals, emphasize the ethical review process, animal care, and the importance of minimizing animal suffering. They also stress the need for researchers to implement the 3Rs—Replacement, Reduction, and Refinement—to minimize the use of animals and ensure humane practices in research. This chapter explores the CCSEA guidelines in detail and compares them with animal welfare regulations from around the world, including the United States, European Union, Japan, and Australia. By understanding the similarities and differences between these regulations, researchers and policymakers can ensure the ethical treatment of laboratory animals on a global scale.
2. Objectives of CCSEA Guidelines
The main objective of the CCSEA guidelines is to ensure that laboratory animals are treated ethically and humanely while also supporting the validity and scientific rigor of research. The guidelines encourage researchers to prioritize animal welfare while minimizing unnecessary suffering. Specifically, CCSEA focuses on:
1. Ethical Treatment of Animals: Ensuring that animals are housed in suitable conditions, given adequate veterinary care, and provided with a comfortable environment to reduce stress.
2. Justification of Animal Use: Ensuring that animals are used only when necessary, and that their use is scientifically justified.
3. Pain and Stress Minimization: Ensuring that experimental procedures cause the least pain, distress and suffering possible.

Celosia is an attractive flowering crop valued for its distinctive inflorescences, bright colours and use as loose and ornamental flowers. The crop includes forms such as Cristata, Plumosa and Spicata, with the characteristic brain-like appearance of cockscomb resulting from fasciation. This chapter deals with the origin, distribution, genetics, botanical features and important varieties of Celosia. It explains climatic and soil requirements, propagation, land preparation, nutrient management, planting, irrigation and cultural practices for commercial production. The chapter also covers plant growth regulation, insect pests and diseases, harvesting, postharvest management and yield. Its practical approach makes it relevant to students, growers and floriculture entrepreneurs.