eChapters

3.1 Introduction
Since the dawn of humanity, the expansion of invention and technological innovation has made it possible to make a variety of goods to meet its needs. To get a competitive edge in the market, the manufacture of a product has three main goals, viz. efficient product planning, efficient manufacturing, and effective cost control.
These can be achieved through a random thinking, if the designer is fortunate to have the best design of a product of interest, which satisfies the needs of its customers. But it will rarely happen. Design thinking maximizes the possibility of happening of the best design in the journey of design a product in shorter possible time.
Design thinking, an emerging field in this direction, tries to create a product by utilizing the following steps.
i. Empathize
ii. Define
iii. Ideate
iv. Prototype
v. Test
3.2 Definition of Design Thinking
A design methodology called “Design Thinking” offers a problem-based approach to problem solving. By understanding the human needs which changes quickly, re-framing the issue in human-centric ways, generating a lot of ideas during brainstorming sessions, and taking a hands-on approach during prototyping and testing, design thinking is incredibly helpful in handling complicated challenges that are ill-defined or unknown. Anyone can use the Design Thinking approach to tackle complex problems that arise in our society, such as those in our businesses, governments, and other spheres of influence, if they have an understanding of these five steps of the process.

1) Anthracnose
Diagnostic Symptoms
• All the above ground parts are affected. However, the characteristic symptoms appear on pods.
• On cotyledons, spots are sunken dark brown or black with pink spore mass.
• Seedling infection results in collapse of seedling.
• Spots on leaves appear on lower side and are black. Later these may also appear on upper surface. When the infection is severe, the affected plants wither off.
• Black, sunken, circular spots of varying sizes appear on pods with bright red, yellow or orange margins. The centre of these spots later turns grey or pink due to sporulation of the pathogen. The border of these spots appear raised (Fig.1).

A thorough knowledge of bee biology and colony organization is crucial for practicing sustainable beekeeping, particularly within natural farming systems that rely on minimal interference. Honeybees are social creatures that thrive in complex, cooperative colonies characterized by a structured division of labor. A standard honeybee colony includes three types of adult bees—queen, workers, and drones—each with specific biological and functional roles. The queen, as the only reproductive female, lays thousands of eggs and emits pheromones that maintain order and harmony in the hive. Worker bees, which are sterile females, form the majority of the colony and are responsible for tasks such as cleaning, brood care, comb construction, hive defense, and foraging for nectar, pollen, propolis, and water. Drones, the male bees, primarily serve the purpose of mating with a virgin queen and are usually removed from the hive during winter or resource shortages.

The colony’s internal structure is equally intricate. Bees construct wax combs made of hexagonal cells that serve as nurseries for brood, storage for pollen (bee bread), and reservoirs for honey. Brood development progresses through four stages: egg, larva, pupa, and adult. Worker bees actively regulate environmental conditions like temperature and humidity to ensure optimal brood health. Natural colonies operate with remarkable cohesion, where each bee contributes to the overall survival and success of the hive. This collective organization highlights honeybees as symbols of biological efficiency and mutual dependence.

Bees are fundamental to maintaining ecological stability and enhancing agricultural output, making it vital to understand their diversity—especially in the context of natural farming systems. Different bee species vary in behavior, environmental adaptability, honey yield, and efficiency in pollination. India is home to several native and introduced bee species, each contributing uniquely to honey production and ecosystem health. Choosing a species for natural beekeeping depends on factors like climate, local flora, and whether the beekeeper’s goal is honey production, crop pollination, or species conservation.

Among these species, Apis dorsata—the rock bee—is a large, wild bee known for building single, exposed combs on high structures such as trees and cliffs. While it can produce up to 40 kg of honey per colony annually, its aggressive nature makes it unsuitable for domestication. In contrast, Apis cerana indica, the native Indian hive bee, is better adapted to India’s diverse climates and is compatible with low-maintenance, eco-conscious farming. Producing around 6–10 kg of honey per colony annually, it suits small-scale, sustainable practices.

1.1 Nematodes in Agriculture
Nematodes offer several ecosystem services that affect the nitrogen cycle, decomposition capacity, and control of pests within soil systems. Firstly, the effects on the nitrogen cycle have generated a growing interest in the beneficial effects of nematodes to improve soil nitrogen content. Specifically, soil disruption, during activities such as tillage, increases nitrogen availability as well as the abundance of bacteria that compete for nitrogen (Ducker James, 2021). In response to more bacteria, bacterial feeding nematodes also increase in abundance, and this stabilizes nitrogen availability and increases nitrogen mineralization in soil once again, which is key for crop growth and soil fertility. Secondly, nematodes are involved in the decomposition of organic matter in the soil. Free-living nematodes are particularly essential as they recycle nutrients in the soil, which is matched by the indirect effect of bacteria and fungi-feeding nematodes that feed on the bacteria and fungi which decompose organic matter. Together, the feeding activity of these nematodes accelerates the decomposition process and makes minerals and nutrients accessible to growing plant roots.
Thirdly, nematodes are valuable biological agents of pest control. Predatory nematodes regulate populations of other organisms in soil as they feed on organisms such as protozoa, insects, and other nematode species. As a result, nematodes moderate the population of other nematodes, and studies have shown that nematodes such as the Steinernematidae and Heterorhabditidae can kill soil-based insect pests within 48 hours. Finally, nematodes have become key biological indicators of soil health. The diversity and richness of nematodes communities are particularly insightful as they act as proxies to reveal information on the levels of nutrients, fungal availability, and bacteria,

Abstract

The medicinal plant, Nithyakalyani, Catharanthusroseus is valued for its alkaloid and the content varied, among root (0.14 to 1.43%), stem (0.48%), fruit (0.4%), seed (0.18%) and pericaup (1.14%). The biofertilizer consortium development includes Catharanthusroseus. Azosppirillumlipoferum CAZS-4, Azotobaterchroococcum CAZB-1, Bacillusmegaterium CPB-18 and Pseudomonasflourescens CPF-14. The relative chemotactic response (RCR) of the strains to anionic fraction is more than that of cationic and neutral fractions. The consortium treated plants possessed 1.120 mg g^-1 of ajmalicine on 180 DAS, and the antioxidant superoxide dismutase (SOD) (13.240 U mg of protein hr-1), peroxide (POX) (11.240 U mg of protein hr-1) and catalase (CAT) (9.000 U mg of protein hr^-1) values were higher on 150 DAS. The consortium increased the biomass production by 50-75 per cent with proportionate increase in the mineral nutrient content. Biofertilizer consortium is the most effective organic input for biomass production.

Ber, Ziziphus mauritiana is indigenous to India and was called as poor man’s fruit earlier. But now it has become a good source of income to the orchardists, in the arid and semi-arid regions of the country, mainly with the development of new varieties. A number of insect pests (around 150) infest the ber tree but only few are the major ones, the description of which is provided below:

Fruit fly, Carpomya vesuviana Costa (Tephritidae: Diptera)

It is a major pest of ber in all the ber growing regions and proves as a bottleneck in its production and productivity. It is monophagous and develops only in fruits of Ziziphus spp. Most of the cultivated varieties are susceptible to this direct pest. The eggs are small, elongate, spindle shaped and creamy white. Maggots are creamy white (Plate 9a) and slightly smaller than maggots of other fruit flies. Pupae are barrel shaped and brown. Adults are smaller than housefly, brownish yellow with brown longitudinal stripes on the thorax. This fruit fly can be distinguished easily from other species due to distinctive pattern of black marks on the scutum and scutellum (Plate 9a). Wings are hyaline with four yellow cross bands.

1. Vein-Clearing/Yellow Vein Mosaic
Bhendi yellow vein mosaic virus
Diagnostic Symptoms
• Yellowing of the entire network of veins in the leaf blade is the characteristic symptom.
• In severe infections, the younger leaves turn yellow, become reduced in size and the plant is highly stunted.
• The veins of the leaves will be cleared by the virus and intervenal area becomes completely yellow or white.
• In a field, most of the plants may be diseased and the infection may start at any stage of plant growth.
• Infection restricts flowering and fruits, if formed, may be smaller and harder.
• The affected plants produce fruits with yellow or white colour and they are not fit for marketing (Fig.1).
• The virus is spread by whitefly.

The increasing use of genomics, phenotyping, remote sensing, sensors and digital agricultural technologies has generated large and complex datasets in plant science. This chapter examines the role of big data analytics in managing and interpreting these datasets for agricultural research and decision-making. It discusses applications of big data in plant science and the technological infrastructure required for data storage, processing and analysis. Cloud computing, next-generation sequencing and high-performance computing are highlighted as important technologies supporting large-scale biological and agricultural data analysis. The chapter also considers the benefits and challenges of big data, including computational requirements, data management, integration and interpretation, before outlining future opportunities for data-driven plant science.

Poisoned food technique

The principle involved is to poison the medium with fungi toxicants and then allow a test fungus to grow on such medium. The test may be performed both on solid and liquid medium.

Procedure

On solid medium

•Prepare potato dextrose agar medium.

•Add required amount of fungicide and thoroughly mixed.

•The medium is poured into sterilized Petri-plates.

•A culture of test fungus is grown on PDA for a certain period (generally seven days) at the optimum temperature for growth.

•Small disc (7 mm) of fungus culture is cut with sterile cork borer and each Petri plates are centrally inoculated aseptically containing the medium with desired fungicidal concentration.

•Suitable checks are kept where the culture discs are grown under the same conditions on PDA without fungicide.

•The fungal colony diameter is measured at every 24 hr.

Biological control of disease employs natural enemies of pests or pathogens to eradicate or control their population. Interactions that lead to biocontrol can include antibiosis, competition, induction of host resistance, and predation. Some of the microbial taxa that have been successfully commercialized and are currently marketed include bacteria belonging to the genera Agrobacterium, Bacillus, Pseudomonas and Streptomyces and fungi belonging to the genera Ampelomyces, Candida, Coniothyrium and Trichoderma.

•Dual Culture Technique: For in vitro screening, performance of antagonist isolates in dual culture (Morton and Stroube, 1955) with test pathogen can be tested.

•Pour 15-20 ml of sterilized melted PDA in 9 cm Petriplates and allowed to solidify.

•Place the bits (5 mm) of the test pathogen and antagonist on the PDA plates opposite to each other from 1.0 cm from the periphery of plates (if both are fast growing) or place it 2-3 cm apart (if both are slow growing).

•The Petriplates are incubated (at 28 ± 2^oC) for desired duration.

•Periodical observation on the growth of the antagonists and the ability of the antagonist to colonise the pathogen are recorded.

Abstract

A field experiment was carried out during rabi 2012-13 at Bihar Agricultural College farm, Sabour, Bhagalpur to assess the effect of different herbicides on microbial population dynamics of soil in winter maize (Zea mays L.). The experiment comprised of ten weed management treatments involving various herbicides (acetochlor @ 1.125, 2.25 and 4.5 kg a.i. ha^-1, atrazine @ 1.0 kg a.i. ha^-1, pendimethalin @ 0.5 kg a.i. ha^-1 + atrazine @ 0.5 kg a.i. ha^-1, alachlor @ 0.5 kg a.i. ha^-1 as pre-emergence and 2,4-Diethyl ester @ 0.6 kg a.i. ha^-1and topramezone @ 0.04 kg a.i. ha^-1+ atrazine @ 0.25 kg a.i. ha^-1 as post-emergence including weed free and weedy check laid in randomized block design with three replications. Results indicated that all the herbicides’ treatment showed significant adverse effect on microbial population in rhizospheric soil of winter maize up to 45 days after sowing. Further, there was reduction in soil microbial population occurred in all the herbicides treated plots up to said time period as compared with weed free and weedy check. Initially the soil microbial population in weed free plot was much higher than that of weedy check, however, it was found in reverse trends in rest of the time intervals as well as harvest. Thereafter, soil microbial population was gradually increasing at different time intervals and at harvest, their population increased considerably in herbicidal treated plots though the weed free and weedy check showed higher soil microbial population than other herbicide treated plots.

Introduction

A sustainable approach to managing pests by combining biological, cultural, physical and chemical tools in a way that minimizes economic, health and environmental risks. The objective for IPM practitioners is to minimize risks to human health and the environment from the pest management actions implemented. IPM is a holistic approach that seeks to manage pests by using methods that are effective, economically sound, and ecologically compatible. IPM practitioners base decisions on information that is collected systematically as they integrate economic, environmental, and social goals. IPM promotes the use and integration of biological control agent as one of the strategies for pest and disease management. Because, biological control of plant pathogen is a potential alternative to the use of environment harming chemical pesticides in agriculture.

A bioassay, also known as a biological assay, is a scientific experiment used to quantify the impact of a substance on a living organism. According to Finney (1952), bioassay is defined as measurement of potency of any stimulus (physical, chemical, biological, physiological) by means of reactions which it produces in living matter. It is an essential procedure in insecticide development and the assessment of environmental pollutants, as well as the evaluation of the effects of interventions viz. pesticides and herbicides on the environment. In the field of biostatistics, a bioassay refers to a set of techniques used to determine the quantity or intensity of an agent or stimulus based on the response of the subject. Typically, many methods are employed to assess the strength or effectiveness of an insecticide by examining its impact on living organisms.

An insecticide is a pesticide used to kill or eliminate insect pests in agriculture, households, and industries. Judicious use of insecticides may be a factor in the increase of agricultural productivity, but by their nature of having high toxicity to non target organisms and capability to develop resistance through widespread use, most insecticides have high potential to significantly affect and alter ecosystems. Many are toxic to humans and animals (both domestic and wildlife), and can accumulate as concentrates in the food chain and water resources, giving rise to serious environmental contamination and pollution.

Postharvest losses of fruits and vegetables are even higher and are estimated to be 40-50%. Postharvest fruit rotting are a major cause of those losses and are chiefly caused by fungal pathogens after fruit ripening. In a manner similar to foliar diseases that occur in the field, several factors as fungal pathogenicity, host response and environment determine the outcome of host resistance or susceptibility. However, in postharvest diseases fruit ripening is another major component that will determine fruit resistance. The molecular trigger induces the germ tube to differentiate an appressorium. It has been shown that excess nutrients over ride it and protein synthesis is not required once germination has occurred. Protein synthesis during conidium germination and appressorium formation on cellulose membranes were observed (Pathak, 1997). A specific polypeptide (95 kDa) was synthesized only when appressoria matured (a period lasting from 12-24 h after germination). This molecule is involved in the synthesis of the melanin precursor, Scytalone.

Appressoria grown in the presence of cyclohexamide do not mature nor they subsequently differentiate a penetration peg. Appressorium maturation involves the formation of melanin. It has been shown that melanization of appressoria is necessary for formation of a successful penetration peg. The melanin appears to give the appressorium mechanical strength, but pigmentation is only one factor required for penetration competent appressoria. At restrictive temperatures, pigmentation of conidia of C. lagenarium mutants could be restored with dihydroxyphenylalanine without restoration of appressorial competence. Non-pathogenic mutants have been used to determine factors important for pathogenicity. Cutinase production was essential for penetration of papaya fruits. The cutinase produced during infection of papaya fruit by C. gloeosporioides has been purified and characterized as a glycoprotein of 24 kDa. Polyclonal antibodies raised against this enzyme do not cross react with cutinase from Fusarium so/ani, and lesions do not develop when papaya fruits are inoculated with spore suspensions containing the antibody preparation.

Introduction

Leafhoppers belong to the family Cicadellidae and constitute one of the largest families in the exopterygotan Hexapoda. Recent estimates of species for the world range between 35,000-45,000 species though little over 22,600 species are now described (Dietrich, 2004a). The leafhoppers belong to the order Hemiptera and suborder Auchenorrhyncha.
 
Leafhoppers can readily be recognized from other members of the Auchenorrhyncha by the presence of two or more rows of spines on hind tibiae and by the pronotum not extending back over abdomen. Their close relative, the Membracidae, have pronotum extending back over the abdomen. From planthoppers (Delphacidae) with which they are often confused, they can be recognized by the position and structure of antennae. The leafhopper antennae are placed between eyes compared to beneath the eyes in planthoppers; the second segment of the antenna (pedicel) is small without externally visible sensillae in leafhoppers compared to enlarged pedicel with prominent sensillae in the planthoppers. The movable large spur at the apex of hind tibia in plant hoppers is absent in the leafhoppers.

Introduction
Bioinformatics software plays an important role in the identification of plant varieties through employing genetic and genomic data to distinguish various kinds from each other. The software uses such approaches to DNA sequencing, molecular markers, and computational algorithms to increase precision in crop identification. Techniques such as SNP genotyping, DNA barcoding, and machine learning models are helpful in easily classifying and validating crop varieties. Farmers and breeders, for instance, will benefit from bioinformatics because it ensures genetic purity, improves genetic selection in crops, and provides more yields. It also incorporates bioinformatics tools that are revolutionizing plant breeding and conservation and allow the accurate identification of diverse highquality crop varieties for sustainable agriculture and food security (Derreper et al., 2011; Heo et al., 2024).
Crop variety identification has prime importance as per agriculture, food security, and conservation of biodiversity it maintains genetic purity for crops resulting in more yields with disease resistance and adaptability to climate. Correct identification will help farmer’s select superior seeds and maximize resources for increased productivity; further crop variety identification would participate in breeding programs ensuring superior crops varieties with desirable characteristics like drought tolerance, pest resistance, and better nutritional content. Accurate crop variety identification, in terms of food security, creates a steady supply of food through supporting continuous cultures of high-yielding and hardy varieties for the farm. Welfare in crop variety identification would help prevent fraud and misrepresentation in the food because they would be able to ensure that what customers receive is the type of crop they were looking for both in planned nutrition and costs. Facilitate seed certification schemes for protection of farmers from counterfeit seeds that would result in low yields.
Maintenance of genetic resources through proper identification of crop varieties ensures conservation of biodiversity. Crop variety identification and registration is a huge stroke towards conservation of wild and traditional crop species, which are very important for breeding and climate resilience. Such an event becomes important in climate change where genetic diversity ensures the abilities of crops to adapt to changing environmental conditions (Kim et al., 2021; Nguyen et al., 2025; Pavan et al., 2020).

Introduction

Agricultural pests cause considerable yield losses throughout the world. In ancient times, farmers had to manage pest problem to safeguard their basic needs, and as a response, the farmers use to practice and develop cultural and mechanical pest control strategies based on their field experience. Over a period of time, these practices have become a part of their production management system. Pest management practices began to change in later stages of the 18^th century. Introduction of pesticides in agricultural ecosystems 1950’s contributed substantially in raising agricultural productivity and they become an integral component of intensive agricultural ecosystems. At the same time, environmentalists raised their concerns on deleterious effects of pesticides on environment, human health and non-target organisms. Excessive use and abuse of pesticides leads to the problems like resistance, resurgence and residues (Beaument, 1993). One of the deleterious effects of over use of pesticides is the death of effective predator and parasitoids. This ultimately leads to the imbalance in the agroecosystem. Concerns about the negative effects of pesticides led to research and promotion of alternative pest control practices – Integrated Pest Control or simply IPC. This new concept called Integrated Pest Control (IPC) and later Integrated Pest Management (IPM) was stimulated by symposia organized by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations in 1966 and the International Organization for Biological Control (IOBC) in 1967. IPM made a paradigm shift in the philosophy of pest control, from pest eradication to pest management. Instead of single tactic control, emphasis was placed on the use of a combination of available tactics in a compatible manner keep the pest below economic injury levels. Consequently, a more integrated approach of pest control was advocated considering the natural mortality factors. IPM is a complex system approach that comprises judicious use of cultural, physical, mechanical, biological, host plant resistance, regulatory and chemical methods.

Introduction

Banana (Musa sp; family: Musaceae) is the second most important fruit crop in India next to mango. Its year round availability, affordability, varietal range, taste, nutritive and medicinal value makes it the favorite fruit among all classes of people. It has also good export potential. Banana evolved in the humid tropical regions of South East Asia with India as one of its center of origin. Modern edible varieties have evolved from the two species – Musa acuminata and Musa balbisiana and their natural hybrids, originally found in the rain forests of S.E. Asia. During the seventh century AD its cultivation spread to Egypt and Africa. Banana and plantains are grown in about 120 countries. Total annual world production is estimated at 86 million tonnes of fruits. India leads the world in banana production with an annual output of about 14.2 million tonnes. Other leading producers are Brazil, Eucador, China, Phillipines, Indonesia, Costarica, Mexico, Thailand and Colombia. In India banana ranks first in production and third in area among fruit crops. It accounts for 13% of the total area and 33% of the production of fruits. Production is highest in Maharashtra (3924.1 thousand tones) followed by Tamil Nadu (3543.8 thousand tonnes). Within India, Maharashtra has the highest productivity of 65.70 metric tones /ha. against national average of 30.5 tonnes/ha. The other major banana producing states are Karnataka, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh and Assam.