eChapters

Modes of Culture 

Callus is a mass of undifferentiated plant tissues formed from plant cells or tissue cuttings when grown in culture. Tissues and cells of plant cultured in a liquid medium aerated by agitation grow as suspension of single cells and cell clumps. For growth, the cells require to divide, whereas, the cells breaking up from explant are mature, nondividing. Hence, the differentiated tissue undergoes modifications to become meristematic. This phenomenon of a mature cell reverting back to meristematic state to form undifferentiated callus tissue is called dedifferentiation.

Summary

RNA interference has revolutionized the concepts in regulation of gene expression. RNA interference is the mechanism that controls sequence specific gene silencing by double stranded RNA. These non-coding RNAs are gene specific regulators critical in the transformation of normal cells to a malignant stage. Alterations in the non-coding RNAs have been linked to specific cancers and can serve as diagnostic markers. The ability of exogenously introduced siRNAs to specifically bind its complementary mRNA and down regulate its expression has various applications. It has markedly influenced the way the role of certain genes is investigated in tumorigenesis. The siRNA technology has been effectively functional in identification of new components and blocking the expression of critical mediators in tumorigenesis.

Canopy management is central to achieving balanced vegetative growth, efficient light utilization, flowering, fruiting, and high-quality produce. This chapter explains the principles and objectives of training and pruning in horticultural crops. Different training systems are related to crop architecture, growth habit, planting density, and production objectives. Pruning techniques are discussed for regulating shoot growth, removing undesirable branches, improving air circulation, and maintaining productive canopy structure. Light interception and distribution within the canopy are also examined because photosynthetic efficiency strongly influences yield and fruit quality. Modern high-density orchards require precise canopy management to balance productivity, plant size, mechanization, and long-term orchard sustainability.

10.1 Introduction

A single-walled carbon nanotube (SW-CNT) is a nano scale tube formed by a cylindrical shell of single atomic layer of carbon atoms. Nanotubes have diameter of a few nm and length up to 100 nm so that they form extremely thin wires. The atomic structure of SWCNT can be formed by wrapping a stripe of single atomic layer of graphite sheet al.,ong a certain direction, and this direction determines the diameter and chirality of the nanotubes. Experimental and theoretical studies have found that these nano-meter sized CNTs have novel electronic properties, which can be metallic or semiconducting, depending on their radius or chiralities (Mintmire 1992, Hamada 1992, Saito et. al., 1992, Rao 1997, Wildoer 1998 and Odom et al., 1998).

Carnation is one of the world's most important commercial cut flowers and is extensively produced under protected conditions for domestic and export markets. This chapter examines its origin, distribution, genetics, botanical characteristics, types and commercially important varieties. It describes protected cultivation, greenhouse design, climate management, soil, propagation, planting, irrigation, fertigation, pinching, disbudding, staking and growth regulation. Major pests and diseases, harvesting, grading, postharvest handling, vase life and yield are also discussed. The chapter incorporates modern cultivars, disease-resistant varieties and genetically modified colour developments, making it valuable for contemporary commercial carnation production and floriculture education

The Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety entered into force on 11 September 2003. It is a legally binding international agreement under the United Nations’ Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD).

What is a protocol ?: A protocol is a binding international instrument, separate from, but related to, another treaty. It is a separate instrument, that must be individually negotiated, signed and eventually ratified. It is only binding on States that become parties to it. It thus has its own parties, and creates separate rights and obligations for them, as any other treaty.

The unique characteristic of a protocol is that it is related to a ‘parent’ treaty, through substantive, procedural, and institutional links. Most importantly, a protocol under a specific treaty must comply with the parent treaty’s provisions authorizing and regulating the adoption of protocols under its auspices. 

Introduction

On 29 January 2000, the Conference of the Parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity adopted a supplementary agreement to the Convention known as the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety. The Protocol seeks to protect biological diversity from the potential risks posed by living modified organisms resulting from modern biotechnology. It establishes an advance informed agreement (AIA) procedure for ensuring that countries are provided with the information necessary to make informed decisions before agreeing to the import of such organisms into their territory. The Protocol contains reference to a precautionary approach and reaffirms the precaution language in Principle 15 of the Rio Declaration on Environment and Development. The Protocol also establishes a Biosafety Clearing-House to facilitate the exchange of information on living modified organisms and to assist countries in the implementation of the Protocol.

6.1 Introduction
The success of design thinking depends on its applicability in industries and service organization. The applications of design thinking applied to product development should focus on the needs of users. The design thinking can also be applied to design new processes as well as improve an existing process.
6.2 Case Studies
The section presents several case studies of applying design thinking in realities as listed below.
1. Design thinking in eye care
2. Design thinking in foundry
3. Design thinking in FMG company
4. Design thinking in auto industry
5. Design thinking at retail outlet
6. Design Thinking in Flight Reservation System
7. Design thinking in winding fabric on roller in textile mill
6.2.1 Case study: Design Thinking in Eye Care
Eye care is a crucial part of health care system. There are many factors that are responsible for poor eye vision. Normally in the early stages, viz. children and adults up to 40 or 45 years of age may have eye power issues, which are managed

1. Introduction
Animal experimentation remains a cornerstone of scientific research in many fields, from medical advances to pharmaceutical testing. However, the ethical treatment of laboratory animals has become a point of significant concern worldwide. India, through the Committee for the Control and Supervision of Experiments on Animals (CCSEA), ensures that ethical standards are maintained in research institutions. Established under the Ministry of Environment, Forests, and Climate Change (MoEF&CC), CCSEA is tasked with overseeing the use of animals in experiments, ensuring that procedures adhere to ethical guidelines and international norms. CCSEA’s guidelines are in line with international standards set forth by organizations such as the International Council for Laboratory Animal Science (ICLAS) and the European Union (EU), but they are tailored to address local needs and conditions. The guidelines, which focus on the welfare of laboratory animals, emphasize the ethical review process, animal care, and the importance of minimizing animal suffering. They also stress the need for researchers to implement the 3Rs—Replacement, Reduction, and Refinement—to minimize the use of animals and ensure humane practices in research. This chapter explores the CCSEA guidelines in detail and compares them with animal welfare regulations from around the world, including the United States, European Union, Japan, and Australia. By understanding the similarities and differences between these regulations, researchers and policymakers can ensure the ethical treatment of laboratory animals on a global scale.
2. Objectives of CCSEA Guidelines
The main objective of the CCSEA guidelines is to ensure that laboratory animals are treated ethically and humanely while also supporting the validity and scientific rigor of research. The guidelines encourage researchers to prioritize animal welfare while minimizing unnecessary suffering. Specifically, CCSEA focuses on:
1. Ethical Treatment of Animals: Ensuring that animals are housed in suitable conditions, given adequate veterinary care, and provided with a comfortable environment to reduce stress.
2. Justification of Animal Use: Ensuring that animals are used only when necessary, and that their use is scientifically justified.
3. Pain and Stress Minimization: Ensuring that experimental procedures cause the least pain, distress and suffering possible.

Plant cell culture
Introduction

As the human population is expanding there has been increasing concern over whether current rates of food productions can support the growing population. In response to the increasing demand, scientists and farmers have been working hard to come up with new ideas to meet these needs. These ideas range from simple procedures including selection of the best seeds to more complex procedures requiring the transplantation of genes into different plant species. This chapter focuses on one of the important aspects of plant science which is the growth of plant cells in an artificial media. This process is known as plant cell culture and can be applied in many different ways. 

Cell Lysis Procedure

Pellet the cells in a microfuge tube: add 1.5 ml culture, centrifuge for 15 seconds at maximum speed, discard the supernatant, and then repeat the procedure. This will result in the cells from 3 ml of culture in a single tube.

Resuspend the cells in 1 ml Lysis buffer.

Take 300 µl aliquot for Bradford protein assay.

Add 50 µl lysozyme, and mix gently.

After 10-20 minutes at room temperature, microfuge for 10 minutes to pellet cell debris.

Use supernatant for LDH assay.

ALL LIVING ORGANISMS ARE MADE UP OF UNITS CALLED CELLS

All living creatures are made from 1 or more cells

All cells are produced from previously existing cells (no spontaneous generation)

All cells appear to be descended from the first cell which existed about 4 billion years ago

For a species to exist its reproductive cells must be potentially immortal (no aging)

Our bodies start from a single cell and contain about 100,000,000,000,000 (10^14) cells at maturity

I. WALL COMPONENTS – CHEMISTRY

The main ingredient in cell walls are polysaccharides (or complex carbohydrates or complex sugars) which are built from monosaccharides (or simple sugars). Eleven sugars are common in these polysaccharides including like glucose and galactose. Carbohydrates are good building blocks because they can produce a nearly infinite variety of structures. There are a variety of other components in the wall including protein, and lignin. Let’s look at these wall components in more detail:

A. Cellulose: β1,4-glucan (structure provided in class). Made of as many as 25,000 individual glucose molecules. Every other molecule (called residues) is “upside down”. Cellobiose (glucose-glucose disaccharide) is the basic building block. Cellulose readily forms hydrogen bonds with itself (intra-molecular H-bonds) and with other cellulose chains (inter-molecular H-bonds). A cellulose chain will form hydrogen bonds with about 36 other chains to yield a microfibril. This is somewhat analogous to the formation of a thick rope from thin fibers. Microfibrils are 5-12 nm wide and give the wall strength - they have a tensile strength equivalent to steel. Some regions of the microfibrils are highly crystalline while others are more “amorphous”.

Summary

Multicellular organisms are made up of diverse set of cells. Cells respond to the changes in the particular microenvironment by means of cellular communication. This cell-cell communication is extremely important for the development, maintenance and survival of the organism. This communication is equally important for the unicellular organisms. Cells communicate to one another and respond to the environmental changes using diverse chemical languages, as discussed in this chapter. However, in many cases like multicellular organisms, cell communication is primarily mediated by specific receptor(s) expressed on the cell membranes. These receptors bind to the extracellular signaling molecules (called ligands) and activate specific signaling pathways to bring about particular cellular responses. These different receptors, ligands and signaling pathways are briefly discussed here.

Cell

Cells (small, membrane-bounded structures filled with a variety of chemicals in an aqueous solution that interact to give life) are the basic unit of life. Cells are capable of acquisition and use of energy, have the capacity to reproduce and respond to the environment and are able to carry out a variety of chemical reactions. They maintain a relatively constant internal environment despite changes in the external environment. There are two types of cells, namely, prokaryotes and eukaryotes.

The prokaryotic (pro = before, karyote = nucleus) cells are the simple form of cell types which include the various types of cells of bacteria and their relatives, all belonging to kingdom Monera. They possess a cell wall constructed of peptidoglycan, a substance unique to prokaryotes. Beneath the cell wall, there is a plasma membrane that encloses a cytoplasm containing DNA, RNA, proteins and various small molecules.

Cells are the Working Units of Life

With the possible exception of viruses, every form of life on Earth either is a cell or composed of cells. All cells come into existence through the activity of other cells.

All Cells are either Prokaryotic or Eukaryotic

All cells can be classified as prokaryotic or eukaryotic. All plants, animals, fungi, and protists are either single eukaryotic cells or are composed of eukaryotic cells. Prokaryotic cells are either bacteria or archaea. Eukaryotic cells have most of their DNA contained in a membrane-lined nucleus, whereas prokaryotic cells do not have a nucleus. Eukaryotic cells also have more specialized structures, called organelles, than do prokaryotic cells. All prokaryotes are single-celled, whereas many eukaryotes are multi-celled.

The Eukaryotic Cell

There are five principal components to the eukaryotic animal cell: the nucleus, other organelles, the cytosol, the cytoskeleton, and the plasma membrane. Organelles are “tiny organs” within the cell that carry out specialized functions, such as energy transfer and material recycling. The cytosol is the fluid in which these organelles are immersed (The cytoplasm is the region of the cell inside the plasma membrane but outside the nucleus.) The cytoskeleton is composed of several groups of proteins that give the cell support and facilitate transportation of cellular elements. The plasma membrane is the chemically active outer boundary of the animal cell. Plant cells have a plasma membrane that has, outside of it, a cell wall.

Celosia is an attractive flowering crop valued for its distinctive inflorescences, bright colours and use as loose and ornamental flowers. The crop includes forms such as Cristata, Plumosa and Spicata, with the characteristic brain-like appearance of cockscomb resulting from fasciation. This chapter deals with the origin, distribution, genetics, botanical features and important varieties of Celosia. It explains climatic and soil requirements, propagation, land preparation, nutrient management, planting, irrigation and cultural practices for commercial production. The chapter also covers plant growth regulation, insect pests and diseases, harvesting, postharvest management and yield. Its practical approach makes it relevant to students, growers and floriculture entrepreneurs.