eChapters

No country is self-sufficient in plant genetic resources, and until recently this was thought to be sufficient to ensure the free flow of germplasm among nations. However, the concepts of ownership, sovereignty and intellectual property rights (IPR) have increasingly been invoked of late in discussions of how best to conserve and use plant genetic resources. This has resulted from the growing realization that germplasm has real economic value. At the same time, awareness has grown that the repercussions of overexploitation of natural resources, of the extinction of species and the disappearance of crop landraces, of environmental damage and of habitat destruction can be global, transcending national boundaries and short-term financial considerations (Anon. 1995). Therefore important international agreements/legislations on plant genetic resources management have been enacted from time to time. The important ones are as follows :

The 15 CGIAR (Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research) Research Centers are independent, non-profit research organizations, conducting innovative research. Home to more than 8,000 scientists, researchers, technicians, and staff, CGIAR research works to create a better future for the world’s poor. Each Center has its own charter, board of trustees, director general, and staff. CGIAR Research Centers are responsible for hands-on research programmes and operations guided by policies and research directions set by the System Management Board.

Abstract

Describes the genesis, organization and Internet representation of International Patent Classification (IPC). Provides the outline of seventh edition and useful URLs related to it.

Keywords: International Patent Classification, Patent Classification, Classification, Internet representation

Introduction

The International Patent Classification, commonly known as the IPC, is based on an international multi-lateral treaty administered by World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO). This treaty is called the Strasbourg Agreement concerning the IPC, which was concluded in 1971 and came into force on October 7, 1975. The Agreement aimed to overcome the difficulties caused by using diverse national patent classification system. The common classification system defined by the Agreement is applied to patent and utility model documents. The Agreement is open to States party to the Paris Convention for the Protection of Industrial Property.

IPGRI founded in 1974 is the world’s largest international institute dedicated solely to the conservation and use of plant genetic resources. It is located at Rome in Italy. The institute is funded by the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIR) which is an informal association of 45 public and private sector donors. CGIAR supports a network of 16 International Agricultural Research Centres. The Group was established in 1971. It is cosponsored by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), the World Bank, United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), and the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP).

There have been lots of international efforts to establish crop based research centres primarily in the developing/under-developed countries to carry out concerted breeding and plant genetic resources management activities pooling germplasm from all over the world and also engaging scientists from different countries to do breeding work on the certain mandate crops of the particular region using all kinds of germplasm and technologies with strong financial support from a central agency known as Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR) for doing the stipulated work as per programme and deliver the products which can be used by different national plant breeding programmes either to use them directly as cultivars or to use them in their breeding programmes in various ways including parents in the crossing programme.

CGIaR (Consultative Group on International agricultural Research)

CGIAR System Organization headquartered in Montpellier, France is a global agricultural research partnership for a food secure future that was founded in the 1970s in response to the Green Revolution. There are presently 15 CGIAR agricultural research centres employing more than 8,500 researchers and support staff worldwide, with an annual budget of US$ 800 million.

CGIAR is a global research partnership for a food-secure future. CGIAR science is dedicated to reducing poverty, enhancing food and nutrition security, and improving natural resources and ecosystem services. Its research is carried out by 15 CGIAR Research Centers in close collaboration with hundreds of partners, including national and regional research institutes, civil society organizations, academia, development organizations and the private sector. The CGIAR Fund was established as a Financial Intermediary Fund (FIF) in 2010. It was subsequently closed and replaced by a new FIF in 2017, following the CGIAR System governance reorganization.

International Standards for Phytosanitary Measures (ISPMs) are standards adopted by the Commission on Phytosanitary Measures (CPM), which is the governing body of the International Plant Protection Convention (IPPC). The first International Standard for Phytosanitary Measures (ISPM) was adopted in 1993.

As of March 2021, there are 44 adopted ISPMs (ISPM 30 being revoked), 29 Diagnostic Protocols and 39 Phytosanitary Treatments. These international standards protect sustainable agriculture and enhance global food security, protect the environment, forests and biodiversity and facilitate economic and trade development. International Standards for Phytosanitary Measures are prepared by the Secretariat of the International Plant Protection Convention as part of the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization’s global programme of policy and technical assistance in plant quarantine. 

The integration of Internet of Things technologies with artificial intelligence is creating increasingly connected and data-driven agricultural systems. This chapter examines how IoT and AI can support smart farming through continuous data collection, analysis and decision-making. It discusses technological infrastructure for advanced agriculture and improvements in field operations enabled by connected sensors and intelligent systems. Applications in precision farming, including orchard and vineyard management, are considered alongside emerging technologies and high-throughput phenotyping. IoT devices can provide information about environmental and crop conditions, while AI methods transform these data into useful management insights. The chapter concludes by examining future directions and research challenges associated with integrated smart farming systems.

The intervarietal chromosome substitution lines of wheat (T. aestivum) are utilized to study the effects of individual whole chromosome/s on agronomic characters of interest to improve crop plants to be selected for preferred traits (Law and Worland 1973). The common method to develop subsitutiion lines involves development of monosomics lines first of that variety which are used later as recipient variety or recurrent parent for substitution. Presently monosomic lines of several wheat varieties are available. However, the development of substitution lines for a specific chromosome by using monosomics sometimes may be erroroneus due replacement of specific monosome by another one of the 21 chromosome set from the donor to the recipient and consequently monosomic becomes monosomic for another chromosome or a recombined chromosome (univalent shift.). Therefore, to maintainand confirmthe identityof a chromosome involved in monosomy are tagged with either genetic marker/s or confirmed cytologically or with the help of molecular markers.

2.1 Introduction in Plant Breeding

A. Define/Explain the followings

1. Plant breeding: Plant breeding is defined as the art, science and technology of improving the genetic make-up of crop plants in relation to their economic use for mankind.

Practical have a significant role in the study of any theoretical subject. Whatever a student learns in theory, he verifies it by actual doing with his own hands.  Thus, these reduce any doubts and misbelieve from his mind. These verifications by actually doing the things are performed in the laboratories.  A laboratory is a place with the basic and essential equipments and adequate facilities for students and teachers to perform and observe experiments.  Plants will continue to provide novel products as well as chemical models for new drugs in the coming centuries.  The arrival of chemical analysis and the characterization of molecular structures have helped in precisely identifying these plants and correlating them with their activity under controlled experimentation.

There is no cereal in the world which has no immense patentability as in maize and that’s why it is called the “Queen of cereals”. It is the world’s leading cereals crop after rice and wheat. It is one of most important cereals of Nepal. At national level, it stands second position after rice in term of area and fourth in term of production after rice, potato and sugarcane. Maize is the most important cereals crop of hill and mid hills of Nepal. It is grown single as well as mixed cropping with millets or legumes or potato. Maize crop in hill is grown as rainfed farming. Generally, farmer of such region does not apply chemical fertilizer but they fertilize the land with organic manures in three seasons viz., rainy, winter and spring season. In rainy season it grown in upland while in spring season in low land. The winter maize is grown in Terai and inner Terai in low land as well as upland.

Biology is the study of life and living organisms that encompasses a vast range of topics from the microscopic scale of cellular processes to the complex interactions within ecosystems. It explores living organisms’ structure, function, growth, evolution, and distribution, integrating diverse fields such as genetics, ecology, and physiology. Chemistry is often referred to as the central science, delves into the composition, structure, properties, and changes of matter. It explores how substances interact with each other and transform through chemical reactions. This field underpins a multitude of scientific disciplines, linking concepts in physics with applications in biology, medicine, and engineering. The chemistry of living organisms is known as Biochemistry. The concept behind Biochemistry deals with the biology and the conventional chemistry. As we all know living organisms can grow, reproduce, and respond but do you know that all these activities could easily be interpreted by chemistry? The complex organic molecules are present

A Overview

Genetics is a branch of biology concerned with heredity and variation.

Genes are the unit of inheritance and are composed of DNA.

The effects of genes are noticeable at the molecular, cellular, family, and population levels.

Genes are DNA sequences that instruct cells to produce particular proteins, which in turn determine traits.

Genes can exist in more than one form and the variants of a gene arise by mutation.

An allele is a variant of a gene that alters its expression in a detectable way. Alleles can be dominant or recessive.

A polymorphism is a particular sequence of DNA that varies in one percent or more of the population.

Single nucleotide polymorphisms are single base pair sites that differ among individuals.

Chromosomes consist of genes and associated proteins.

The human genome consists of 22 pairs of autosomes and one pair of sex chromosomes.

A karyotype is the photographic catalog of the human chromosomes.

Specialized cells and tissues arise by differentiation from the stem cells of the early embryo.

Pedigree diagrams enable recessive and dominant traits to be followed through multiple generations of a family.

A gene pool is the collection of alleles in a population.

Comparative genomics is leading to a more detailed and subtle understanding of evolutionary relationships among species

Introduction
Good Laboratory Practices (GLP) are a quality system concerned with the organizational process and the conditions under which non-clinical health and environmental safety studies are planned, performed, monitored, recorded, archived, and reported. GLP ensures the quality and integrity of the study process rather than the scientific validity of the study itself. It provides a framework for ensuring that data generated in non-clinical safety studies are reliable and reproducible, thereby facilitating the mutual acceptance of data by regulatory authorities worldwide (OECD, 1998; US EPA, 2016). GLP represents a structured quality system designed to ensure the consistency and reliability of non-clinical safety studies. It establishes a framework encompassing organizational processes and laboratory conditions, with a focus on:
1. Systematic Study Conduct: GLP mandates a methodical approach to the planning, execution, supervision, recording, reporting, and archiving of studies.
2. Data Integrity Assurance: The primary objective is to guarantee the dependability of data generated, thereby fostering confidence in safety assessments.
3. Regulatory Compliance Support: GLP facilitates adherence to regulatory standards, enabling the acceptance of study findings by authorities worldwide.
4. Non-Clinical Safety Focus: It specifically applies to studies that precede human clinical trials, particularly those evaluating the potential hazards of chemical substances (OECD, 1998).
In veterinary and allied fields, GLP extends beyond general scientific rigor to address the unique challenges of animal health, food safety, and environmental protection related to animal populations. It ensures the reliability and traceability of data generated in studies related to veterinary pharmaceuticals, feed additives, diagnostics, and environmental toxicology involving animals. The focus is on maintaining the integrity of studies that directly impact animal welfare, public health, and agricultural sustainability (World Organization for Animal Health, 2018; FDA, 2010). In the context of veterinary medicine or treatment aspects, GLP in veterinary refers to a a well organised quality system that governs the organization and conditions under which non-clinical studies related to animal health and safety are planned, performed, monitored, recorded, reported, and archived. This includes:

Horticulture is an intensive branch of agricultural and plant sciences concerned with the production, management, improvement, utilization, and marketing of high-value crops. It encompasses fruits, vegetables, flowers, ornamentals, plantation crops, spices, medicinal plants, and nursery crops. This chapter introduces the meaning, scope, importance, history, and major branches of horticulture. It explains how horticulture differs from general agriculture through its emphasis on quality, intensive management, perishability, and value addition. The chapter also highlights the economic, nutritional, social, and ecological contributions of horticulture and traces its development from traditional cultivation to modern technologies such as protected cultivation, precision farming, hydroponics, and artificial intelligence.

Intellectual Property Rights (IPR) refer to the legal rights granted to creators, inventors, and innovators for their intellectual creations. These rights enable individuals or organizations to control and benefit from the use of their creations for a certain period. In the era of rapid advancements in biotechnology and molecular biology, IPR has emerged as a cornerstone in protecting and commercializing innovations in plant genetics, genetic engineering, bioproducts, and molecular tools.
The concept of IPR is rooted in the recognition that ideas, like physical property, hold economic value and deserve legal protection. IPR plays a pivotal role in encouraging innovation, fostering technology transfer, promoting research investment, and ensuring economic returns to developers. In biotechnology, IPR has direct implications on transgenic technologies, bioinformatics, novel genes, enzymes, diagnostic kits, and biopharmaceuticals.
1.1 Evolution and Historical Background of IPR
1.1.1 Introduction
The concept of Intellectual Property Rights (IPR) has evolved over centuries as a legal framework to protect creations of the human intellect. While the terminology “intellectual property” is relatively modern, the underlying idea—that inventors, artists, and creators deserve recognition and protection for their innovations—has ancient roots. In the context of modern biotechnology, IPR serves not only as a legal safeguard but also as a vital tool to stimulate innovation, secure investments, and promote equitable commercialization.
Understanding the historical trajectory of IPR helps contextualize contemporary debates on the ownership of genetic resources, traditional knowledge, and the ethical implications of patenting life forms.

Intellectual property (IP) refers to the creations of the human mind that can be protected and have commercial value. These creations, or “intellect,” can take various forms, such as inventions, artistic works, and designs. Converting intellectual property into a useful product or process requires resources like time, effort, skill, and financial investment. Intellectual property rights (IPR) are legal rights granted to innovators and creators, giving them exclusive control over the use and monetization of their inventions and creations. IPRs are territorial and allow creators to sell, license, transfer, or otherwise dispose of their rights, similar to physical property.

IPRs are considered crucial for promoting economic growth and development, as they encourage innovation, investment, and entrepreneurship. Without IPRs, inventions and creative works could be easily copied or stolen, resulting in reduced incentives for innovation and decreased economic value. Lack of IPR can also lead to an increase in infringements and economic losses. In recent years, India has been increasing its awareness of IPR and has seen a rise in registrations of indigenous technology, patents, trade secrets, and copyrights among others.

Metabolomics is the comprehensive qualitative and quantitative study of metabolites present in biological systems under specific physiological or pathological conditions. This chapter introduces the concept of metabolomics and the metabolome and explains their importance in understanding cellular function and phenotype. It traces the development of metabolomics from classical biochemical analysis through chromatography, mass spectrometry, NMR spectroscopy, and modern high-throughput technologies. The chapter discusses applications in medicine, agriculture, biotechnology, pharmaceuticals, and environmental sciences. It also explains the relationship between metabolomics and systems biology, emphasizing the role of metabolites as functional indicators connecting genotype with phenotype and supporting biomarker discovery and biological systems analysis.

Abstract

An intellectual property infringement is the violation of an intellectual property right of the owner. Infringement is established based on the law governing appropriate IPR in the concerned country. Both civil and criminal remedies are available under the concerned law. The present paper introduces the patent infringement as per Indian Patent Act, 1970. It discusses various modes and types of infringements which can take place. It further discusses a procedure to formulate opinion about product infringing a granted patent. In the end some usual defenses against patent infringements have been discussed. Some case studies have also been presented along with the damages awarded for the patent infringement.