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Any crop improvement programme primarily depends on the amount of genetic variability available and the extent to which the economic traits are heritable. A wide survey of genetic variability and a thorough understanding of the genetic makeup of the crop with the biometrial tools is very much indispensable for initiating an effective breeding programme.

Effectiveness in breeding programme depends upon three main factors viz., (i) the extent of genetic variation available, (ii) heritabiity of the variation and (iii) intensity of the selection pressure that can be applied. As most of the characters of economic importance and related characters which influence the performance of the economic character in a given set of environment are highly influenced by the environmental conditions, the heritable (genotypic) variation usually masked by non-heritable (environmental) variation and thereby creates difficulty in exercising the selection. Hence, it becomes necessary to partition the overall variability into heritable and non-heritable components to enable the breeders to plan for proper breeding programme.

The estimates of mean, variance and standard error are worked out by adopting the standard methods of Panse and Sukhatme (1961). Usually, randomized block design is the choice of the statistical design. Various genetic parameters are worked out from the mean squares. Assessment of genetic variation is usually made through the computation of genotypic variance and genotypic coefficient of variation. The proportion of the total genetic variance expressed as percentage of total phenotypic variance has been used as a measure of genetic variability of heritability in broad sense.

Role of Biotechnological Approaches

In our fore-going chapters, we have studied variety of plant products such as alkaloids, glycosides, volatile or essential oils, gums and mucilage and oleoresins with varied role to play to the plants as well as to human.Knowledge of plants and knowledge of healing have been closely linked. It is well established that industries have many direct and indirect effects on human population. Increased stress is most evident at the same time health awareness goes parallel in the recent times. Most of the natural plant products are compounds biosynthetically derived from primary metabolites such as amino acids, carbohydrate metabolic intermediates and fatty acids. These secondary metabolites are the major sources of pharmaceuticals, food additives, fragrance and pesticides.

Application of biotechnology know how helps to synthesize the novel molecules and also could be beneficial to enhance the production of secondary metabolites. Classical definition of biotechnology states that it is “The use of living organisms or their products to enhance our lives and our environment.” The word Pharming is commonly use to describe genetically engineered plants or livestock to produce medically useful products –predominantly protein drugs. Plants or animals are genetically engineered to contain genes capable of producing a biologic or drug compound. Therapeutic proteins are designed to treat illness includes serum proteins, cytokines, growth regulators, anti coagulants, antbiotics, lysosomal enzymes and plant secondary metabolites.

Isolation and Purification of Secondary Metabolites

Isolation

The act of isolating something; setting something apart from others.

Purification

The process of making pure, free from anything that debases, pollutes, or contaminates, the process of removing impurities.

The term rare amino acid is misleading in some respects. It refers to all those amino acids that are not incorporated into proteins. We already got to know some of them like ornithine or citrulline that are rather common intermediates of the basic metabolism. Roughly 220 different structures are known, most of which occur in plant cells in a free state though glutamate-, oxalate- or acetyl- derivatives can also sometimes be found.

Plant oleoresins, often referred to as resins, are sticky plant secretions synthesized in large quantities by about 10 % of plant families. Resin is secreted when a plant is disturbed and the sticky substances produced contain many toxic compounds used to defend the plant from herbivores and pathogens. A major component of resin is the terpenoid compounds. Although terpenoid compounds can be quite complex, they are all composed of five-carbon units, with an isoprene unit as the base. The simplest of these terpenes are the monoterpenes that possess 10- carbon atoms derived from two fused isoprene units. Monoterpenes are an important component of the volatile portion of terpenes and often emit very strong odors.

The plant gums are the neutral salts and complex polysaccharide acids which contain methyl pentose, pentose, hexose and uronic acid residues joined glycosidically by linkages involving various carbon atoms within one molecule to form branched chain structure. Uronic acid is generally present in all cases. The sugars include L-fructose, D-xylose, L-arabinose, D-rhamnose, and D-galactose.

General Properties of Gums

They have high molecular weight. Some are linear while some are branched. They are generally viscous in nature. Some forms a gel also. They have tremendous commercial application in food industry. Gums may be an exudates gum produced by the plant or may be a seed gum, which is accumulated during the seed maturity. Gums of polysaccharide origin are obtained from Acacia spp. (gum Arabic), Cymopsis tetragonolobus (guar gum), Guggle gum, Ficus indica, chia gum etc (Table 7.1).

Glycosides are compounds containing a carbohydrate and a non carbohydrate residue in the same molecule. They are the complex polysaccharides which are chemically heterogeneous collection of substances, which have in common one property that the molecules are linked together and contain at least one sugar unit. The term glycoside represents a group of compound containing glucose and one or more basic or acidic organic compound in chemical combination. When the sugar other than glucose is present, it is called glycoside. Each sugar is linked through a glycosidic bond to either a non sugar component, aglycones, (aglycone or aglucone is the nonsugar molecule in glycosides).

The alkaloids represent yet another large group of secondary plant products. Many, but not all, exhibit important pharmacological properties & some of these have been known for hundred of years. For e.g. Cinchona alkaloids, present in bark of Cinchona spp. have quinine as their main constituent, has been known since 1639 as an effective antimalarial agent.

An alkaloid contains nitrogen, frequently as a part of a heterocyclic ring, and most are as the general name implies, basic. Alkaloids are the naturally occurring basic, nitrogenous, organic, heterocyclic ring compounds mostly of plant origin with physiological and pharmacological properties. At present, the definition is much more pragmatic and includes all nitrogen containing natural products which are not otherwise classified as peptides, amines, non-protein amino acids, cyanogenic glycosides, glucosinolates, cofactors, phytohormones or primary metabolites (such as purines and pyrimidines bases). Even a number of antibiotics produced by bacteria or fungi are therefore included as alkaloids. Alkaloids evolved early in evolution and were already present (200 million years ago) when the angiosperms began to radiate. Today, more than 12,000 alkaloids are known to occur from more than 4000 species of Angiosperms. Ladenberg defined alkaloid as :

“Naturally occurring basic, complex, nitrogenous organic, heterocyclic ring compound of plant origin with physiological and pharmacological properties.”

The functional diversity of chemicals within plants is best demonstrated by terpenoids. More than 30,000 terpenoids have been identified, each one composed of 5-carbon (prenyl diphosphate) building blocks added together to make 10-carbon, 15-carbon, and even 2000–500,000-carbon chains, as is the case for rubber. Terpenes are functionally diverse, and many are integral to primary metabolism, e.g., hormones such as gibberellins and abscisic acid, electron carriers such as plastoquinone and ubiquinone, terpene-derived compounds that form structural parts of membranes such as phytosterols, and photosynthetic pigments such as carotenoids.

Plant terpenes are also available as essential oil or ethereal oil. Essential oil is defined as the volatile oil obtained by the steam distillation of plants. There is a distinction between fixed or fatty oils and volatile oils. Their volatility (boiling point) and plant origin are characteristic properties of these oils.

Plant cells contain far more compounds than are produced by the basic metabolism. Terpenes, waxes, alkaloids and pigments are just some key words that illustrate what is meant. The term basic metabolism comprises all pathways necessary for the survival of the cells, while secondary plant products are such that occur usually only in special, differentiated cells and are not necessary for the cells themselves but may be useful for the plant as a whole. Examples are flower pigments and scents or stabilizing elements. Both metabolisms are overlapping since it is often not understood why a certain compound is produced. Furthermore, no typical cell exists so that some compounds may be necessary for the survival of some cells but not for that of others.

Arguments in support of important functions for plant secondary products are underlined by the organizational complexity and specificity which characterizes many aspects of their biosynthesis. Furthermore – with the very important exception of substances produced in response to stress or pathogen attack – much of secondary metabolism is reproducible from one individual of a species to another and, to a remarkable degree, produces the same principal compounds in broadly the same relative proportions. For example, an Atropa plant extracted for alkaloids can confidently be predicted to contain predominantly atropine, rather than its immediate precursor, tropine, or a more distantly-related alkaloid, nicotine – just as the passenger boarding a train for Mumbai at Anand can be reassured that his train will not terminate prematurely at a “precursor station” (Surat), or even adopt an “alternative pathway” (to Poona). On the other hand, the evolutionary circumstances leading to the development of atropine formation in Atropa, rather than to the formation of other alkaloids with comparable activity (for example, nicotine) remain substantially unknown. A similar question has been discussed regarding two families of plant pigments with apparently similar functions, the anthocyanins and the betalains. With regard to defense (and similarly but perhaps less obviously protection against ionizing radiation), a general hypothesis argues that plants evolved a broad defensive strategy based upon a diversity of antimicrobial and anti feedant substances from which, as a result of chance mutation, more potent substances conferring additional selective advantage from time to time arose. It is conceivable that in some cases enzymes evolved or became adapted to catalyse reactions of benefit which could already occur to some extent (though in a non-stereospecific manner) non-enzymically. Mutation will then have led to the development of modified enzymes able to catalyse reactions with new or different substrates, or to catalyse alternative reactions with existing substrates.

Nowhere in the plant kingdom do ecology, evolution, and human affairs come together as intricately as phenomena involving secondary metabolites. The importance of these compounds is apparent in some of the earliest annals of human history. For example, Papaver somniferum, the original source of morphine and codeine, was known to the Sumerians in 4000 B.C. as hul gil (joy-plant). These two alkaloids, so important in human affairs for many years, probably evolved within the genus Papaver originally as protective compounds against herbivores. As a testament to the importance of secondary metabolites,

P. somniferum was one the first plants to be cultivated for a reason other than its caloric or nutritive value. Sadly, its importance has only increased over the time. Organic chemists of the nineteenth century were among the first to recognize and study the diversity of plant secondary metabolites and to analyze them both in terms of structure and function. The German organic chemists developed techniques to acetylate morphine and produce what they claimed at the time to be a non addictive version of the drug. However, acetylation product of morphine trade name Heroin, was vastly more addictive. The economies of several developing nations in Asia still depend on the acetylation of this plant secondary metabolite, and tens of thousands of lives each year are destroyed by its commercial importance. In another striking example of profitable secondary metabolites, acetylation techniques to salicylic acid, derived originally from the bark of willows, Salix, to create aspirin. The modern appreciation of these secondary metabolites from ecological and evolutionary perspectives had its spread outside of the plant-insect ecology community. The overwhelming array of chemicals found in plants was more than simply by-products of primary metabolism that served as waste products for these organisms that lacked excretory systems.

Ecologists and evolutionary biologists soon took up the cudgels, and the past 60 years have seen the development, testing, refinement, and, in some cases, rejection of models that describe the ecology and evolution of these “secondary” substances. With the functional roles of these compounds broadly acknowledged, several challenges presented themselves to scientists interested in their ecological and evolutionary dynamics. Most obviously, the details of the processes underlying the interactions between each of these compounds and their target pest or pathogen became one of the most vibrant topics in ecological and physiological research.

Plants are used for many purposes apart from food such as industrial products like perfumes, pharmaceuticals, agrochemicals, food additives, cosmetics and also for rectifying the side effects of allopathic medicines, etc. Interest was taken in the chemical constituents of plants in the very early days of modern science. Plants were used for very many purposes besides providing food, such as for treating medical ailments and for dyeing in textiles.

To the agricultural chemists, any biological organism is ultimately constituted from the elements like C, H, O, N, P, Ca, Mg, S etc. Two or more elements combine to form complex organic compounds such as carbohydrates, fats, proteins, enzymes, alkaloids, glycosides, organic acids and many more complex compounds. These biomolecules can be classified into two main major metabolites. (1) Primary metabolites and (2) Secondary metabolites.

A Patent is a written document explaining an invention with exclusive right. It is used to protect an inventor/scientist and to prevent other from making profits without permission. It is also used as an authority paper permitting license holders to duplicate the results. A patent application requires a combination of legal documentation and technical papers. This issue makes patent writing a very different writing style.

In India, patent applications can be filed by a patent agent or an individual having some scientific and technical background to understand the invention. However, no one can understand the invention better than the inventors themselves. Document preparation requires healthy discussions between the inventor and agent. For inventors, a good understanding on patent writing style can greatly facilitate the documentation process. Before filing the patent application inventor must be sure about that the subject is eligible for patent protection, the invention has something new, the invention is not obvious and is not easily predictable from general consensus, and the invention has practical application.

Keeping in view the importance of intellectual property rights and their protection, Journal of Intellectual Property Rights (JIPR) was started in 1996. The objective of the journal is enhancing communication between policy makers, organizational agents, academics, and managers on the critical understanding and research on intellectual property; and to promote the development of the newly cultivated research field. The journal publishes contributed/invited articles, case studies and patent reviews; technical notes on current IPR issues; literature review; world literature on IPR; national and international IPR news, book reviews, and conference reports.

JIPR is covered in the abstracting/ indexing services namely Scopus, EBSCO host Electronic Journals Service, Directory of Open Access Journal, Library & Information Science Abstracts database and Legal information Institute of India database.

World Intellectual Property Organization

http://www.wipo.int,http://www.wipo.org

The World Intellectual Property Organization - referred to in abbreviated form as WIPO in English, and OMPI in French and Spanish - was established by a convention signed at Stockholm on July 14, 1967, and entitled “Convention Establishing the World Intellectual Property Organization.” The WIPO Convention entered into force in 1970. WIPO became a specialized agency in the United Nations system of organizations in 1974 and dedicated to the use of intellectual property (patents, copyright, trademarks, designs, etc.) as a means of stimulating innovation and creativity.

WIPO promote the development and use of the international IP system through Services, Law, Infrastructure and Development.

Abstract

Describes the genesis, organization and Internet representation of International Patent Classification (IPC). Provides the outline of seventh edition and useful URLs related to it.

Keywords: International Patent Classification, Patent Classification, Classification, Internet representation

Introduction

The International Patent Classification, commonly known as the IPC, is based on an international multi-lateral treaty administered by World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO). This treaty is called the Strasbourg Agreement concerning the IPC, which was concluded in 1971 and came into force on October 7, 1975. The Agreement aimed to overcome the difficulties caused by using diverse national patent classification system. The common classification system defined by the Agreement is applied to patent and utility model documents. The Agreement is open to States party to the Paris Convention for the Protection of Industrial Property.

Abstract

Patent is a monopoly right which is granted by the Government to the applicant for the full disclosure of an ‘invention’ which is ‘new’, ‘inventive’ and ‘industrially applicable’. Thus, before filing a patent application, the inventor must be sure that the work done by him is new and inventive. Further, during the examination of the patent application, it is required to be verified that the invention claimed in the disclosure/specification is new, inventive and industrially applicable. Since the search for the ‘Novelty’ of the invention is carried worldwide, it becomes all the more important for the inventor and the examiners to search for the prior art thoroughly. Searching for the prior art (i.e. state of the art) across the globe in around millions of documents both patents and non-patent documents, is like ‘searching a needle in the haystack’. However, by using proper keywords and classification techniques, it is possible to arrive at the closest prior art available. Each patent application is classified by the Indian Patent Office and thus attributed to one or several fields of technology. The classification scheme applied is the International Patent Classification (IPC).

Abstract

Patent infringement is the act of unauthorized making, using, offering for sale or selling any patented invention within the India. In case of patent infringement it is necessary for the patentee to compare the claims granted to him with the allegedly infringing product an check whether there is an infringement – whether the infringing product falls within the scope of the claims of the patent. In such a case the patentee may sue for relief in an appropriate court. The patentee may ask for permanent injunction and damages on account of the infringement. It is the crusade of the inventor asserting his rights against an infringer and the law recognizes the importance of this right; because, without such positive and assertive rights, industrial progress would be hard to come by

“Necessity is the mother of invention”, all of us must have heard this statement at some juncture in our lives. Most of us may even have even gone through the motion of inventing something when needed. However, more and more inventions happening today may not necessarily be necessities. These inventions definitely perform the task of improvingand making convenient our overall living environment. Past few years have seen an increasing awareness and understanding in the field of intellectual property. Among all aspects, one aspect of intellectual property that is gaining increasing attention of intellectual property owners is management of the intellectual property rights.

This brings to our minds one question, how was intellectual property management practised by early mankind? We all do know that early mankind has left no stone unturned to make theabove statement”Necessity is the mother of invention”, a reality. Mankind prospered by leaps and bounds on account of sharing their various discoveries and inventions. Way back then knowledge was meant to be shared, as aptly captured in the Sanskrit Sloka:

Introduction

In the perspective of the accelerating national growth rate of 8% recorded at the end of the 10th Plan to a projected growth rate of 10% by the end of the 11th Plan, yielding an average GDP growth rate of about 9% it was appearing that the nation is going to have a strong footing of development. However, it could not be fully achieved due to several reasons including the global recession and other factors related to international economic setback which may deter achieving a projected growth rate of 10% in the 12th Plan. In consideration of the international scenario of growing complicacy in economic growth more emphasis should be given on further efficient utilization of natural resources and intellectual properties of grass root innovators to improve per capita income leading to a promising national structure of economics ensuring wide spread benefits to the society. In this regard, true development of a nation like India can be primarily realized by recognition of wide spread enthusiasm of its innovative human resources living in village and rural areas. It can be made possible only through working with them by appreciating their struggle for survival using all round innovative measures coming out of their daily life experiences and traditional knowledge. Technopreneur Promotion Programme (TePP) is a unique scheme of Government of India for development of society especially by promoting the intellectual properties of grass- root level innovators coming out from the society with a source of inspiration arising out of their daily life struggle for existence. In spite of its limited publicity in remote areas an awareness of this programme has often been found to raise great hope to the villagers to do something for their society exploring the ideas generated from the experiences of life with the help of local resources. Such naturally grown innovation can be found undoubtedly novel and the idea can change their world of dreaming for a more prosperous life by bringing changes in socioeconomic pattern of trade and employment in rural areas with proper support from Government if India through the scheme like TePP.