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Maize is the only cereal crop which is being used as human food, animal feed and as a source of large number of industrial products. In Odisha traditionally maize is a Kharif season crop and second most important crop next to paddy during Kharif season in terms of both area and production. The Rabi maize is cultivated under irrigated condition, and accounts only 7% of total area and production of the State. While only 24% of the Kharif maize area have irrigation facilities. Irrespective of the season, it is that is the fourth most important food grain crop with respect to area in the state which is next to rice, mungbean and urdbean. Even though maize is grown as a sole crop in the state but, some farmers are also adopting maize based inter-cropping and the major recommended/adopted inter-crops are arhar, cowpea, yam, runner bean, greengram and blackgram. The comparative analysis of compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of area, production and yield of the major crops is the state was done for the years 2004-05 to 2013-14. The CAGR study of major crops revealed that no other major crop including rice has the impressive growth rate a like maize in the state (Fig. 1).

Maize is one of the most important cereal crops of the world. Being a C₄ plant, it is physiologically more efficient than rice, wheat and other important cereal crops which belong to C₃ category. In Punjab, traditionally, maize is grown during Kharif season but from last few years the area under spring maize is increasing because its cultivation is highly profitable and commercially viable after harvesting of potato crop. No doubt, Punjab has been the leading state in contributing to the national food security but simultaneously paddy-wheat rotation resulted in depletion of underground water, deterioration in soil health and environmental pollution. These problems need to be addressed for the sustainability of these natural resources and at the same time meeting the food grain production for the ever-increasing human population. Under such circumstances, maize crop is a viable alternative to replace some area occupied by rice and can help in breaking rice–wheat dominant cropping pattern in the state. Promising maize hybrids possessing high grain yield potential and offering comparable economic returns to the farmers are available with Punjab Agricultural University as well as with the private sector.

In Punjab, maize is commonly used in the form of chapatis, boiled or roasted green cob, breakfast food like cornflakes, popped grains etc. Maize chapatis are used as a delicacy with saag. The high carotene content of yellow grained maize is considered very useful in imparting yellow colour to egg yolk. Therefore, a substantial quantity of maize grain is utilized as an important ingredient of animal/ poultry feed industry. The use of maize grains for such purposes is going to increase as poultry and dairy industries are expanding. Maize plant is extensively used as green as well as dry fodder. The digestibility of maize fodder is better than sorghum, bajra and other non- legume forage crops. Maize plant does not have any anti quality factor hence can be fed to cattle at any stage. Maize can be utilized as an industrial raw material for number of industries viz., starch, ethanol, rubber, paper, cosmetics and pharmaceuticals etc. Quality Protein Maize (QPM) can be promoted for nutritional security of poor masses whereas pop corn, baby corn and sweet corn can help in increasing the farm income due to high market value. In Punjab, major industries which are utilizing maize are The Sukhjit Starch & Chemical Limited, Kapurthala, and M/s Field Fresh Food Pvt. Ltd, Ladhowal, Ludhiana.

Maize (Zea mays L.), the “Queen of Cereals” is one of the most important highly evolved coarse cereal crop originated at Mexico. This is most widely distributed crop of the world cultivated predominantly in tropics and sub-tropics right from sea level to 4000 m altitude as irrigated or rainfed crop. The demand for maize as an animal feed will continue to grow faster than the demand for its use as a human food, particularly in Asia, where, doubling of production is expected from the present level of 165 m t to almost 400 mt.

Maize (Zea mays L.) is the third most important crop of country after rice and wheat and is cultivated round the year. Its grain is used as feed, food and industrial raw material. Enormous progress has been made during last six decades to enhance yield potential through genetic improvement and alleviate effects due to various biotic and abiotic-stresses. In India, it is an important crop not only in terms of acreage but also in context to its versatility for adoption under wide range of agro-climatic conditions. Of the different forms used for human consumption, 45% is consumed as staple food in various forms viz., bread, biscuits, cookies or transformed into corn flakes, soups, fresh-roasted sweets, boiled cobs and vegetables etc. Maize grain is main ration for poultry birds while forage maize is used as fresh or dry fodder for dairy industries. In Rajasthan maize occupies 0.89 m ha area with an annual production of 1.55 mt and productivity of 1.74 t/ha (Govt of Rajasthan, 2015). Being major Kharif crop in Rajasthan, the productivity levels of maize are still below the national average and farmers are not getting better economic returns. However, profitability can be accelerated further by growing recently popular speciality corns.

Maize (Zea mays L.) is the third most important grain crop in India after rice and wheat with respect to area and production. It has wide ecological adaptability and is grown in almost all parts of the country extending from extreme semi-arid to sub-humid and humid regions. The crop is also popular in low and mid-hill areas of Western and North Eastern regions. It has the highest yield potential and used as human food, animal feed and as a source of large number of industrial by-products. Hence, it is called as “Queen of cereals”. In India, about 59% of the total production is used as feed, while the remaining is used as industrial raw material (17%), food (10%), exports (10%), and other purposes (4%).

Tamil Nadu has a total geographical area of 13 million hectares with a coastal line of 922 km and is endowed with 3 per cent of water resources of the country. Out of 13 million hectares of geographical area, the cultivable area in Tamil Nadu is around 7 million hectares and 55 per cent of which is dryland. The State has gross irrigated area of 33.94 lakh ha out of which 79% is under food crops and 21% is under non-food crops. In Tamil Nadu, maize was grown in an area of 0.14 lakh ha during 1970-71 with the annual production of 0.16 lakh tonnes, mainly concentrated in Tanjore, Pudukkottai and Trichy districts. Due to rapid increase in the demand of maize for poultry and animal feed, industrial uses and introduction of high yielding varieties and hybrids, the area under maize has gone up to 3.8 lakh ha with the production of 22.45 lakh tonnes during 2013-14. The major maize growing districts are Perambalur, Tuticorin, Dindigul, Erode, Karur, Ariyalur, Salem and Southern districts of Tamil Nadu. The demand and production of maize is increasing more rapidly as compared to other major commodities. It is estimated that the demand for maize will continue to increase in coming days (Yadav et al., 2016). Thus, in the next 10 years there is a necessity and opportunity for doubling India’s maize production from the current level of approximately 26 million MT.

Uttar Pradesh, a fourth largest state of India geographically, where agriculture is a prime occupation and this is the traditional maize growing state, accounts 7.7% of area and 5.4 percent of total maize production of the country with an average yield of 1791 kg/ha (IIMR Annual Progress Report, Kharif Maize 2015). Maize is mainly taken as a Kharif crop but, gradually Rabi maize is gaining popularity with the availability of high yielding varieties and advanced production technologies. The rice, wheat, potato, sugarcane based cropping is more popular, and maize is given a moderate priority. The current level of growth in productivity definitely fall short to meet the demand of rapidly growing population even it may increase the poverty, unless vigorous measures are taken to accelerate yield, growth, employment generation, increasing the income of farming family and ultimately targeting for the sustainable climate resilient maize production.

Maize is mainly used as a staple food and quality feed for animals. In addition to that it also serves as a basic raw material for several industries like, starch, oil, protein, alcoholic beverages, food sweeteners, pharmaceuticals, cosmetic, textile, gum, package, paper etc. A major portion of the maize produce is directly consumed as a food in the form of boiled or roasted green ears, chapattis, porridges of various forms, popcorn, cornflakes etc. and as livestock feed viz., cattle, poultry and piggery both in

the form of grain and fodder The central rachis of maize cob, to which the grains are attached remains as an agricultural waste after threshing, has many important agricultural and industrial uses. It is approximately 15 to 18% of the total ear weight and contains 35% cellulose, 40% pentose and 15% lignin (used as a raw material in cardboards). Its uses in agriculture includes as a litter for poultry and as a soil conditioner.

Maize is an important crop of Uttarakhand and is cultivated in about 22 thousand ha in both hills and plains. The crop is grown for food, feed and fodder and forms an integral constituent of all major cropping systems prevalent in the state. Kharif (June-September) is the main grown season in the hills, whereas in the foothills and tarai plains, the crop is grown during zaid (Feb-May) as well. The crop is grown broadly for two different end products – grain and green ears. In areas where maize forms staple diet, the crop is grown for grain, whereas in areas adjoining/en route popular tourist destinations and towns, the crop is grown mainly for green ears. The crop is also gaining importance as an industrial crops following establishment of maize processing industry in the state.

The major maize growing districts of the state are Dehradun, Nainital, Pithoragarh, Pauri, Tehri and Almora (Fig. 1), which together comprise about 90% of total

West Bengal is the fifth largest state in terms of (GSDP) Gross State Domestic Product after Maharastra, UP, TN and AP and is the third largest contributor in agriculture sector of real GDP. West Bengal has 3% of India land mass and 8% population with population density of 1029 per km².

Agriculture accounts for about 17% (2013-14) GSDP and provides employment to over 55% of workers. About 64% of the geographical area of West Bengal is under cultivation. There is little scope for further increase the current cultivable area. Because it is difficult to maintain the growth rate in the absence of adequate infrastructure support, crop diversification and market access.

Food production remained stagnant as the green revolution by-passed the state. However, there has been a significant increase in food production since 1980’s and the state is now one of the few Indian states with a surplus in food production, producing nearly 20% of the rice and 33% of potato. Agriculture accounts the largest share of the labour force. Rice, potato, jute, sugarcane and wheat are the top five crops of the state, while other major food crops include maize, pulses, oilseeds, wheat, barley and vegetables. In recent years, significant changes have occurred in maize production and utilization due to increasing commercial orientation of maize crop and rising demand for diversified end users, specially for feed and industrial uses. A sizable number of districts in West Bengal have potential for growing winter maize. Though maize favourably responds to better crop management both in Kharif and Rabi season, the erratic rainfall pattern of the south-west monsoon comes in the way of timely field operations of Kharif season. In absence of any major environmental impediments in Rabi, the desired field operations can be planned and executed at the most desired time. Moreover, the various environmental factors including absence of any major disease and insect pests in this season, helps in realizing the better profits from every additional unit of monetary inputs. Hence, future of Rabi maize in West Bengal is bright.

Maize (Zea mays L., 2n=20) is a cereal crop that is grown widely in more than 165 countries in a range of agro-ecological environments. Even in Asia, the rapid increase in maize acreage in the last decade is an indication that it is winning the battle as compared with rice. The Asian region will see itself as a major global player in the near term. In the past it was mainly confined to food in India and many other countries however, now it has become the industrial crop. Maize has several industrial applications and more than 1000 products are being developed from maize in India and around 3500 products in USA and other countries. It is a raw material for many of the important industries viz. pharma, textile, paper, film, tyre food, processing, packing and biofuel, etc. The growth rate of poultry, livestock, fish, wet and dry milling industries are very high therefore, maize demand will continue to increase in year to come.

Global Maize Scenario

Globally, maize is primarily used as feed livestock and has many industrial uses; however in many developing countries it is still used as a food crop. Small-scale farmers in both sub-Saharan Africa and Mesoamerica generally grow maize as a food crop for household consumption and for saline urban markets. Maize is particularly important in the diets of the rural and urban poor in sub-Saharan Africa and Latin America. Globally, maize is grown in 165 countries in a total of 185.1 million hectares area with 1018.1 million tones of production and 5.52 tonnes/ha productivity (Anonymous 2015-16). Almost 70% of the total maize production in the developing world is coming from low and lower middle income countries. In Asia, maize has recorded the fastest annual growth (around 4%), as compared to other cereals. Maximum maize production was in USA (353.7 million tonnes) followed by China (218.6 million tonnes) and Brazil (80.3 million tonnes) (Fig. 1), while the area under maize cultivation was in China (36.3 million hectare) followed by USA (35.5 million hectare) and Brazil (15.3 million hectare) (Fig. 2). The average world maize productivity is 5500 kg/ha, but the highest productivity of maize was achieved in USA (9970 kg/ha) followed by Canada (9591 kg/ha) and France (8137 kg/ha) (Fig. 3).

Maize or corn (Zea mays, 2n = 2x = 20, Family Gramineae now called as Poaceae, cross-pollinated crop) is produced more than any other grain crop globally. In the Western world, the term maize is used interchangeably with corn. The reason for this is that all grains were called corn under early British and American trade and the name was retained for maize because it was the most common grain in commerce. Although the origin of the word maize is also controversial, it is generally accepted that the word has its origin in Arawac tribes of the indigenous people of the Caribbean. On the basis of this common name, Linnaeus included the name as species epithet in the botanical classification Zea (Zea mays L.) as reported by Smith (2001).

Major International Treaties Related to IPR & TRIPS

There are different forms of intellectual property like Patents, Copyright, Trademarks, Industrial design, Plant Varieties etc. Various meeting and conventions were also convened for the protection in these intellectual properties at international level from time to time and to bring uniformity and coordination among member countries. These were reflected in different treaties, which are mentioned below. Among all these treaties/conventions the agreement on Trade related aspects of intellectual property rights (TRIPS), which runs under aegis of World Trade Organization is most influential, comprehensive and inclusive of all.

Male sterility refers to a condition in which pollen is either absent or non functional or unable to produce functionally viable pollen in flowering plants. Since it was first reported by Kolreuter as early in 1763 that anther abortion occurs naturally in some plant species or in their inter specific crosses, its occurrence was observed in several species. In the 19th century, Gartner (1844) and Herbert (1847) reported the occasional recurrence of anthers rudimentariness or abortion in many ornamental and vegetable crops in normal populations. During the early 20th century, a large number of species were shown to possess male sterility, for example, Suturela hortensis, Lathyrus odoratus, Merculalis annua, Solanum tuberosum, Vitis vinifera, Linnum usitatissimum, Zea mays, Antirrhinum majus, Prunus persicaer and Rubus idaeus. Following the rediscovery of Mendel’s Laws of Inheritance, study of the genetic main basis of inheritance of male sterility attracted the attention of several workers. The main impetus for the study of inheritance of male sterility came from the elucidation of heterosis in maize by G. H. Shull, in 1908 and its exploitation through the use of male sterility by Jones and Clark (1943). The male sterility based scheme of hybrid seed production in corn opened up a new era for the hybrid corn industry as it could overcome the necessity of detasseling of female (parent) lines in the hybrid seed production process.

The male sterility may arise due to malformation of male sex organs, lack of normal anther sac, and inability of anthers to release mature pollens, lack of development of normal microspore.

Male sterility is a condition in plants whereby the anthers or pollen are nonfunctional. The condition may manifest most commonly as absence of pollen or extreme scarcity of pollen, severe malformation or absence of flowers or stamens, or failure of pollen to dehisce. Just like self-incompatibility, male sterility enforces cross-pollination. Similarly, it can be exploited as a tool to eliminate the need for emasculation and for hybrid seed production on commercial scale in field and vegetable crops. There are three basic kinds of male sterility based on the origin of the abnormality related to functional pollen grain.

“Necessity is the mother of invention”, all of us must have heard this statement at some juncture in our lives. Most of us may even have even gone through the motion of inventing something when needed. However, more and more inventions happening today may not necessarily be necessities. These inventions definitely perform the task of improvingand making convenient our overall living environment. Past few years have seen an increasing awareness and understanding in the field of intellectual property. Among all aspects, one aspect of intellectual property that is gaining increasing attention of intellectual property owners is management of the intellectual property rights.

This brings to our minds one question, how was intellectual property management practised by early mankind? We all do know that early mankind has left no stone unturned to make theabove statement”Necessity is the mother of invention”, a reality. Mankind prospered by leaps and bounds on account of sharing their various discoveries and inventions. Way back then knowledge was meant to be shared, as aptly captured in the Sanskrit Sloka:

Genetic Mapping

Perhaps one of the most powerful applications of markers is genetic mapping. This technology allows researchers identify markers located within or very close to genes of interest. With this it is possible to trace these genes through generations of crosses.

If the trait in question is complex and multigenic, mapping will also be of tremendous help to dissect the various genes or loci that contribute to the overall characteristic. Determining the amount of impact each locus delivers is a process called Quantitative Trait Loci or QTL mapping.

Marigold is one of the dominant loose flower crops in India, particularly important for religious ceremonies, festivals, weddings, garlands and decoration. The principal cultivated types include African marigold (Tagetes erecta) and French marigold (Tagetes patula). The chapter discusses the origin, distribution, genetics, botanical characteristics and important varieties of marigold. It also highlights emerging applications such as lutein extraction, natural colourants, culinary uses and companion planting. Detailed production practices cover climate, soil, propagation, nursery management, land preparation, nutrient management, planting, irrigation, pinching and flower harvesting. Important pests and diseases, postharvest handling and yield are also discussed for efficient commercial production.

Marker Assisted Selection (MAS)

Marker Assisted Selection [MAS] is defining as the indirect selection for a desired plant phenotype based on the banding pattern of linked molecular (DNA) markers. It is based to infer the presence of a gene from the presence of a marker which is tightly linked to the gene of interest and high heritability of the gene of interest. Marker assisted selection (MAS) is also known by other names as marker aided selection and marker assisted breeding (MAB).

Introduction

The main goal of plant breeding is to increase crop yield and the second goal is to improve quality, develop light- and heat-insensitive varieties, tolerance to biotic and abiotic stresses, simultaneous maturation, and water and nutrient use. Efficiency, elimination of toxins, and cultivation of different product groups allow to achieve high agricultural yields and sustainable development. Better understanding and development of genetics has increased the efficiency of plant breeding to achieve desired goals in agricultural crops. Effective and efficient use of molecular markers in crop improvement programs increases selection efficiency and productivity and accelerates the growth cycle to create new varieties with good results. Marker assisted selection (MAS) is a technique that uses markers (morphological, biochemical, or DNA/RNA variation-based markers) to indirectly select for traits of interest (e.g., productivity, disease, genetic determinants resistance, abiotic stress tolerance and/or quality). This process is used in plant and animal breeding. The rapid development of biotechnology has allowed breeders to develop better selections to replace traditional selections based on phenotypic pedigree.

The final chapter examines the commercial, institutional and policy dimensions of the Indian cut flower industry. It discusses domestic and international markets, export opportunities, grading, packaging, cold-chain requirements and India's competitive position. Institutional support from ICAR, APEDA, National Horticulture Board, MIDH, financial institutions and Centres of Excellence is explained. The chapter also covers Agri Export Zones, Export Oriented Units and crop insurance mechanisms relevant to commercial floriculture. Current challenges include freight costs, cold-chain limitations, quality standards and international competition, while opportunities arise from protected cultivation, precision farming, automation, AI, IoT, exports and premium flower markets.

Marketing is a critical component of loose flower production because flowers are highly perishable and subject to substantial seasonal price fluctuations. This chapter examines important local and national markets, export opportunities, transportation systems and marketing channels. It explains direct marketing, commission-agent systems, wholesaler-retailer networks and emerging contract arrangements. The role of APMC markets in price discovery, grading, auctioning and market access is discussed along with online trading, e-commerce and digital payment systems. The chapter also considers institutional support, export promotion, value addition and crop insurance. Improved packaging, cold-chain infrastructure, processing and market information systems are highlighted as important strategies for reducing losses and improving farmer profitability.

Mass selection is the simplest, oldest and least expensive method of plant breeding as applicable to cross-pollinated crops. The method involves planting balanced bulk seed of the population to be improved, in isolation, inferior plants rogued out before pollination wherever possible and selecting and bulking superior genotypes that already exist in the population. A balanced bulk of selected ears, for example, in corn is made for planting the next cycle. Selection units are individual plants. Selection is surely on phenotypic performance. This method exploits additive gene effects plus additive x additive interactions. The efficiency of this method depends largely on the heritability of the trait under selection. Selection results using mass selection have been quite effective for less complex traits. Mass selection could be very effective for those traits that can be identified or selected prior to flowering, for example, curd/head shape, size, colour in cauliflower and cabbage, root shape, size, colour and quality traits in radish and carrot and bulb shape, size, colour and weight in onion. A few examples of such traits in maize could be flowering, leaf angle, prolificacy, resistance to thrips, fall armyworm, reduced plant and ear height, reduced anthesis-silking interval and barrenness and tolerance to pre-flowering diseases.

Lack of pollination control is major limitation of this method as both desirable and undesirable pollen will be involved in pollination of the selected plants. Further, if selection intensity is very high (small plant population size advanced), the possibility of inbreeding depression is increased. This selection is not very effective if the heritability of the trait under selection is low (less than 10% on individual plant basis). Mass selection is likely to be more effective for individual or a combination of few traits rather than a whole series of characters. Despite some limitations, mass selection can be very useful and relevant procedure in breeding of cross-pollinated crops in many situations characterized by resource limitations, non-availability of trained scientific manpower and additional test sites, lack of seed storage facilities even for short term and lack of continuity of technical personnel. Lack of control on soil variability also makes this method less effective.