eChapters

Objectives

• Better understand the process and different stages of meiosis.
• Prepare your own specimens of onion root in which you can visualize all of the stages of meiosis.

Principle

Meiosis is a type of cell division in which the number of chromosomes is halved (from diploid to haploid) in the daughter cells, i.e., the gametes. It occurs in cell that produce gametes in sexually reproducing organisms. The division is completed in two phases, meiosis I and meiosis II. Meiosis I is a reductional division in which the chromosomes of homologous pairs separate from each other. Meiosis II maintain same number of chromosomes, hence, is called as equational division. Stages of meiosis can be observed in a cytological preparation of the pollen mother cells of the anthers of f lower buds.

To prepare a series of dilutions of the original more concentrated stock solution, one need to consider both the required final concentration and required volume of the diluted material. The dilution can be readily calculated by the equation:

Peer-reviewed academic journals publish a variety of article types, such as “research articles” that report original research, “reviews” of the literature, and “case reports” of a small number of interesting cases. Each article type has its own specific format, and it is important that you use the appropriate one.

Abstract
 
This work aimed to evaluate agromicrobes preponderance and activity in maize ecosystem of same soil types (diara land/fragile land) under different agricultural practices. We conducted a five year field survey of grower’s field to investigate the effect of tillage system, maize plant genotypes and soil organic carbon level on preponderance of diazotroph (Azotobacter), plant growth promoting rhizobacteria (Pseudomonas) and arbuscular mycorrhiza (AM) colonization of maize ecosystem. No tillage, traditional maize cultivar and soil organic carbon (>1%) appear to support the preponderance of targeted diazotrophs, plant growth promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR) in maize rhizosphere and AM colonization of maize root. Elevation in the preponderance of bacteria, Azospirillum population in maize root, AM colonization, microbial biomass, nitrogen mineralization, phosphate solubilising microbes, cellulose hydrolyzing microbes and acetylene reducing assay (ARA)  of maize root appeared due to organic fertilization of maize crop.

Abstract

Real-time PCR, also known as qPCR, is a highly sensitive technique used to determine the real-time amplification of a target DNA sequence. However, the presence of secondary structures or spurious amplicons can distort the results. When using SYBR Green chemistry, the features of qPCR primers differ from those of standard endpoint PCR primers. As a result, designing primers for SYBR Green qPCR requires extra caution and attention. This chapter outlines the essential features and conditions for designing qPCR primers, including primer length, melting temperature, GC content, specificity, and avoiding primer-dimer formation.

Abstract

PCR primer design is a crucial skill for molecular biologists, as it enables the study of gene expression, gene amplification, and molecular markers. Primer3 is an online tool widely used for designing optimal PCR primers, which are pairs of short oligonucleotides that initiate DNA synthesis in vitro using a thermocycler. This tool uses a range of parameters to generate high- quality primers, including target sequence length, melting temperature, GC content, specificity, and product size. Understanding and effectively utilizing these parameters is essential for achieving accurate and reliable PCR results. In this chapter, the practical aspect of primer designing using the online tool Primer3 has been discussed. The parameters and the purpose of their usage have been given in a tabulated manner.

Cryopreservation

Cryo is a Greek word (krayos-frost). It literally means preservation in frozen state. Cryopreservation is the non lethal storage of biological material at ultra-low temperatures. At the temperature of liquid nitrogen (-196?C) almost all metabolic activities of cells are ceased and the sample can then be preserved in such state for extended periods. This is to bring plant cells or tissues to a zero metabolism and non-dividing state by reducing the temperature in the presence of cryoprotectant. However only few biological materials can be frozen without affecting the cell viability.

It can be done by using,

• Over solid carbon dioxide (at -79 degree)

• Low temperature deep freezer(-80 degree)

• In vapour phase nitrogen(at -150 degree)

• In liquid nitrogen(at -196 degree)

Among these, liquid nitrogen is most widely used material for cryopreservation because it is chemically inert, relatively low cost, Nontoxic, Non-flammable and Readily available.

Biological materials

Seeds from self fertilized plants will be obtained from the concerned breeder. Hand picked, uniform sized seeds will be chosen for mutagenic treatments.

Gamma irradiation

Gamma irradiation will be performed in gamma chamber, exposing the seeds to gamma rays from ⁶⁰Co source: well filled and hand picked uniform sized seeds with a moisture content of 8.5 per cent will be chosen for irradiation. A sample of say 120 seeds per treatment will be packed in butter paper cover and placed in 100 curie ⁶⁰Co gamma cell. The treatments will be given for various duration depending on the doses required with the dose rate of say 54.05 rads/sec.

Chemical mutagenesis

The seeds will be soaked in water for say 6 hours before the chemical treatment. The duration of pre-treatment with water will be determined on preliminary blank experiment. In cowpea genotype Co. Vu. 623, there was about 5-10 per cent radical emergence about 12 hours after soaking in water. There was no radicle emergence before 12 hours water soaking. An initial pre-soaking period of 6 hours was therefore adopted for later treatment with mutagens. The total treatment period will be about 12 hours (6 hours with water and 6 hours with chemical mutagen). The duration of treatment with chemical mutagens will also be based on the half-life period of the mutagen solution.

4.1 Introduction
Companies that produce tangible items or offer services must drastically increase their productivity in order to maintain their operations in the face of intensifying global competition. A single quantum jump productivity enhancement technique or multiple concurrent incremental improvement productivity strategies can both be used to achieve this goal. If a business chooses the second choice, integrating various tactics for a significant increase in the total productivity would be quite difficult. The first alternative, a single productivity improvement plan, will make it possible for the business to increase productivity with the same or greater success. The only difficulty with this strategy is locating the probable problem area and then using process improvement techniques to achieve the anticipated dramatic increase in productivity. Business process reengineering refers to any significant adjustment of business processes that results in a dramatic increase in an organization’s productivity. Price, quality, after-sales support, adherence to delivery schedules, technological breakthroughs, etc. are some elements that influence market competition. Therefore, the business should focus its efforts on each of these areas in order to achieve notable improvements in terms of decreased operating costs and higher sales revenue from the sale of its goods and services to clients. Improved pricing for a company’s goods or services can provide it an advantage over competitions. Applying various cost-cutting strategies to lower variable costs and overhead costs will lower the price of the good or service. The other elements, viz. quality, after-sales support, delivery schedule adherence, and technological advancements are all directed in this direction

Indian seed market is one of the largest in the world and entire supply is through almost locally produced seed. The value of currently marketed seed (excluding the major share of seed saved and used by the farmers) is about USD1 billion (Rs.4500/crore). Of this, roughly a third includes the traded seed making the seed business worth about Rs. 1500 crore. This figure is likely to touch Rs. 4500 crore (USD 1 billion) crore mark by 2010. In comparison to about USD 1 billion seed business in India, the worldwide market of seed is worth about USD 21 billion. The global pesticide market is worth USD 35 billion. These values, however, are much smaller in comparison to global sale of pharmaceuticals worth USD 466 billion.

Strength

Carbon nanotubes are the strongest and stiffest materials yet discovered in terms of tensile strength and elastic modulus respectively. This strength results from the covalent sp² bonds formed between the individual carbon atoms. In 2000, a multi-walled carbon nanotube was tested to have a tensile strength of 63 gigapascals (GPa). (This, for illustration, translates into the ability to endure tension of 6300 kg on a cable with cross-section of 1 mm².) Since carbon nanotubes have a low density for a solid of 1.3 to 1.4 g·cm”³, its specific strength of up to 48,000 kN·m·kg”¹ is the best of known materials, compared to high-carbon steel’s 154 kN·m·kg”¹. Under excessive tensile strain, the tubes will undergo plastic deformation, which means the deformation is permanent. This deformation begins at strains of approximately 5% and can increase the maximum strain the tubes undergo before fracture by releasing strain energy.

Nano-material possess unique properties such as dimension, shape, specific surface area, surface mass ratio etc., that are highly influenced by the mechanical and physical properties. It is pertinent to understand the basic physical properties of nano-materials in order to apply them in a wide array of functions. In this context, this chapter is devoted to provide basic information on physical, mechanical and photo-luminescence properties of nano-materials.

Nano-materials are to be extensively studied and characterized prior to their application in material science, biological science, electrical and electronics. In addition to the basic physical properties of the nano-materials, other characteristics such as paramagnetism, ferromagnetism, supermagnetism, optical properties, quantum size effects and electrical properties have to be studied. With a view to provide the fundamental information on these aspects this chapter is dedicated.

1. Mechanical Properties of Nanomaterials

Scientific challenges in nanoscience and nanotechnology include the development of nanomaterials with novel mechanical properties. The need for scratch, mar and/or abrasion resistance is well established in various markets, including fingernail polishes, flooring, plastic glazing, headlamp covers and other automotive parts, transportation windows and optical lenses, where clear scratch-resistant coatings are used. Because the nanosize, many of their mechanical properties of the materials is modified, among others, hardness and elastic modulus, fracture toughness, scratch resistance, fatigue strength, and hardness. Energy dissipation, mechanical coupling within arrays of components, and mechanical nonlinearities are influenced by structuring components at the nanometer scale. This includes also the interpretation of unusual mechanical behavior (e.g., strengths approaching the theoretical limit) and the exploration of new ways to integrate diverse classes of mechanically functional materials on the nano-size.

Protected cultivation provides controlled or modified growing environments that enable horticultural crops to be produced beyond their normal climatic limitations. This chapter covers greenhouses, polyhouses, shade nets, insect-proof structures, tunnels, and other protected systems. It explains environmental factors such as temperature, humidity, light, ventilation, carbon dioxide, irrigation, and fertigation. Protected cultivation can improve productivity, quality, resource-use efficiency, and production timing while reducing exposure to adverse weather and certain pests. The chapter also discusses crop selection, substrate culture, automation, and integrated management. Proper environmental control and economic planning are essential because protected systems involve higher initial investment but can generate high returns through quality produce and extended market opportunities.

Introduction

Biodiversity conservation and sustainable use are critical for maintaining the health and well-being of the Earth and all its inhabitants. Biodiversity provides essential ecosystem services, resources, and cultural values, and is under threat from various human activities. Conservation and sustainable use are necessary for preserving biodiversity and ensuring a sustainable future, and require the participation and collaboration of all stakeholders.

The protection and restoration of biodiversity are complex challenges that require a multidisciplinary approach and a commitment to sustainability. This includes addressing the underlying drivers of biodiversity loss, promoting sustainable land-use practices, protecting ecosystems and wildlife, and engaging in education and awareness-raising activities. By working together to conserve and sustainably use of biodiversity, we can ensure a healthy planet for future generations.

ABSTRACT

This paper is an attempt to draw the attention of readers of this volume to understand the importance of documentation and preservation of earth’s resources.  

Introduction

Earth has innumerable treasures that were and are being exploited by mankind. Geo-resources in the form of minerals, non-renewable hydrocarbons, paleontologic relics and related evidences indicate earth’s evolutionary history. Continuum of biological activity albeit varying rates of proliferation had resulted in accumulation of natural resources embedded in Earth and distributed at specific geographical niches. Biological perspective of earth history is significant in unraveling bio-geo-sphere interactions through geological time. Fossil records of invertebrates, vertebrates and plants are signals of major changes in earth’s evolutionary history. These constitute unparalleled windows to understand continental separation. Intercontinental and intra continental migration of living forms are also traced through fossil study.

Protection of Plant Varieties and Farmers’ Rights Act-2001 (PPVFRA-2001) was enacted by government of India in 2001 to create a sui generis system of providing a legal framework as an IPR mechanism to protect the varieties of crop plants in India along with grant of breeders’ and farmers’ rights in the interest of all the stakeholders and also to comply with WTO guidelines to which India is a legal signatory.

Chapter I
Preliminary 
1. Short Title and Commencement 
    (1)    These rules may be called the Protection of Plant Varieties and Farmers’ Rights Rules, 2003.   
    (2)    They shall come into force on the date on which the Act shall come into force.   

2. Definitions 
        In these rules, unless the context otherwise requires, -   
    (a)    “Act” means the Protection of Plant Varieties and Farmers’ Rights Act, 2001(53 of 2001);

The plant variety is related to intellectual property that needs to be protected for controlled commercial unitization for a specified period. New plant varieties development requires scientific skill, knowledge, significant investment of land and specialized equipments. These varieties are cultivated by farmers in their adaptive region. In development of new variety 10 to 15 years are required. If developed variety successfully commercialized on farmer’s field, then the market business is much higher than input investment. The major issue in developed variety that can be easily reproduced by someone without permission of original breeder. Thus, the original breeder deprived for their f inancial benefit. It is, therefore, critical to provide an effective system of plant variety protection, which encourages the development of new varieties of plants thereby benefiting the breeder and society at large. The sustainable and long-term breeding effort for development of new varieties needs encouragement and financial reward for investing time and skills. To secure legal protection of the developed variety breeder needs to obtained exclusive right from government.After establishment of WTO in 1995 under TRIP the right to protect plant varieties become mandatory for signatory country. It has also realised that existence of the private seed industry, the protection of plant varieties become necessity.