eChapters

Introduction
A plant seed consists of an embryo and reserve food material (endosperm/ cotyledon) which is surrounded by a protective seed coat. The seed ensures that the next generation of plants exists. The embryo is made up of one or two cotyledons attached to a central axis. The upper part of the axis contains a plumule at its tip. The plumule grows into the shoot system. The lower part of the axis consists of the hypocotyl and a radicle. The radicle grows into the root system. The endosperm is the food reserve that the embryo uses during the early stages of germination. Before the embryo is able to produce its own food through photosynthesis, the endosperm provides vital nutrients to the embryo. Seed stands as an essential and fundamental agricultural input. It can be characterized as a propagative entity that facilitates the continuation of species from one generation to the next. Alternatively, it can be described as a mature fertilized ovule. Seeds play multifaceted roles for their parent plants, encompassing embryo nourishment, dispersion to novel locations, and entering a state of dormancy during adverse environmental circumstances. Seeds originate from various sources like self-pollination, cross-pollination, vegetative propagation, and mechanisms such as apomixis, resulting in diverse varieties or hybrids. Maintaining the genetic consistency of cross-pollinated seeds presents notable challenges. Certain fruit crops encounter obstacles in natural seed propagation due to factors like seed heterozygosity, diminished endosperm size, or minuscule seed dimensions. Additionally, some seedless fruits cannot be propagated conventionally through seeds. Seeds frequently become susceptible to seed-transmitted diseases, facilitating the transmission of diseases across different geographical areas. These constraints in seed-based propagation have spurred the exploration of alternative techniques for species proliferation. This exploration led to the emergence of the concept of synthetic seeds within the realm of plant tissue culture. Synthetic seeds are also known as synseeds or artificial seeds or somatic seeds, seed analog, or manufactured seed. The concept of synthetic seeds has been described in various manners by different researchers. Capuano et al., (1998) defined synthetic seeds as somatic embryos that are enclosed artificially, originating from shoot buds, cell aggregates, or any suitable plant tissue for sowing purposes. These synthetic seeds are capable of developing into plants under controlled in vitro or ex vitro conditions and can maintain this potential even after prolonged storage. Another definition of synthetic or artificial seeds comes from Gray and Purohit (1991) and Redenbaugh (1993), who refer to them as somatic embryos designed for use in the commercial propagation of plants.

A variety produced by crossing inter se a number of genotypes selected for good general combining ability in all hybrid combinations with subsequent maintenance of the variety by open-pollination. Synthetics development is common in cross- pollinated crops in the early phases of breeding. The synthetic method of breeding is suitable for improving cross-fertilized crops. It is widely used to breed forage species. Successful synthetic cultivars have been bred for corn, sugar beets, and other species like cauliflower in India. The suitability of forage species for this method of breeding stems from several biological factors. Forages have perfect flowers, making it difficult to produce hybrid seed for commercial use. The use of male sterility may facilitate controlled cross-pollination, which is difficult to achieve in most forage species. To test individual plants for use in producing the commercial seed, it is essential to obtain sufficient seed from these plants. The amount of seed obtained from single plants of these species is often inadequate for a progeny test. Furthermore, forage species often exhibit self-incompatibility, a condition that inhibits the production of selfed seed. Synthetic cultivars are also used as gene pools in breeding progeny. Synthetic cultivars are advantageous in agricultural production systems where farmers routinely save seed for planting. One of the well-known and widely used synthetic has been the Iowa stiff- stalk synthetic (BSSS) of maize.

Abstract

Systems biology is an interdisciplinary field that combines computer and mathematical analysis with biological research to understand the complex interactions within biological systems. This chapter explores the history and evolution of systems biology and its significant impact on modern biology. Systems biology uses a holistic approach to analyze biological systems at the molecular, cellular, and organismal levels, providing a better understanding of biological processes and the interactions between genes, proteins, and other molecules. Systems biology has immense potential in improving human health, agriculture, and the environment, and this chapter explores the ongoing efforts to translate systems biology research into practical applications.

Tabernaemontana, commonly known as Chandni, Crape Jasmine or Pinwheel Flower, is an evergreen flowering shrub valued for its pure white flowers. Its flowers are extensively used for garlands, decorations, weddings, hair adornment and religious offerings. Unopened buds can also serve as a substitute for jasmine during its off-season. The chapter covers origin, distribution, genetics, botanical description and important cultivars, including single and double forms. Production practices include climate and soil management, propagation, planting, nutrient management, irrigation, pruning and other cultural operations. The chapter also addresses pests and diseases, harvesting, postharvest treatments, storage and yield, with emphasis on maintaining flower freshness and commercial quality.

Nutritional significance of millets
Millets, nutrient-dense grains rich in proteins, vitamins, minerals, and dietary fibre, are emerging as vital components of a balanced diet, particularly in regions where they serve as staple foods. Their high content of essential amino acids, iron, calcium, zinc, and B vitamins makes them crucial for addressing micronutrient deficiencies (Hassan, 2021). As gluten-free grains, millets are suitable for individuals with celiac disease or gluten intolerance, broadening their dietary appeal. Additionally, millets are rich in health-beneficial phenolic compounds, making them suitable for food and feed. Finger millet, with its diverse phenolic profile, has higher antioxidant activity than pearl millet. These phytochemicals positively impact human health by lowering cholesterol and phytates. Incorporating millets into human and livestock diets can improve health, reduce disease risks, and ease the pressure on maize (Hassan, 2021).
Essential nutrients in millets
Millets are particularly rich in carbohydrates, providing a sustained energy source essential for daily activities. Unlike refined grains, millets have a low glycaemic index, releasing glucose slowly into the bloodstream. This characteristic helps manage blood sugar levels and prevents spikes, making millets an excellent food choice for individuals with diabetes. Numerous studies have demonstrated that regular millet consumption can offer a variety of health benefits. The high fiber content in millets supports digestion, prevents constipation, and promotes a healthy gut microbiome (Jacob, 2024) Consuming millets can lower the risk of chronic diseases such as cardiovascular disease, type 2 diabetes, and certain cancers. The antioxidants present in millets protect against oxidative stress and inflammation, which are key contributors to many health conditions. Furthermore, millets high fibre content and low glycaemic index promote feelings of fullness, regulate blood sugar levels, and help maintain a healthy body weight. Millets are ancient small grains grown in arid and semi-arid regions of the world, serving as staple foods for many people in Asia and Africa. Abundant sources of minerals and vitamins, they are often referred to as Nutri cereals. Millets contain valuable phytochemicals that provide therapeutic properties for various disorders and diseases, giving them nutraceutical value. (Mishra, 2022)
A wide array of biochemical compounds is present in the plant parts and grains. In the oldest texts of medicine in India and China, millets are noted for their medicinal value. Expanding interest and emerging facts highlight their therapeutic uses, with ample evidence showing that millet consumption aids in correcting lifestyle and metabolic disorders. The therapeutic properties of millets can be viewed in two ways: supplementary nutrition through minerals and vitamins, and therapeutic value through phytochemicals and specialty compounds like flavonoids, phenolics, and anthocyanidins that have antioxidant potential (Chellappan 2024). Millets are gluten-free, have a low glycaemic index, and their phytochemicals help correct lifestyle disorders and prevent ailments such as carcinogenesis. Supplementary benefits include the treatment of anaemia and

One of the primary targets of genome analysis is to manipulate it at the level of genes, the units of inheritance. Genes, as explained earlier have distinct positions and sequence configurations in the genome which are expressed in the form of RNA or proteins controlling the functionality and identity of an organism. To understand the function of a gene several methodologies may be adopted. As genes have conserved sequences like promoters preceding the reading frame, initiation sequences, exon-intron junctions and end sequences, these features can be used to screen genome sequence to identify the regions containing genes. An open reading frame (ORF) is the sequence of a gene for which functions have been assigned, i.e., the sequence codes for a protein or RNA. On the other hand, an unassigned reading frame (URF) is a sequence which has structural features of a gene, but no function has yet been assigned to it.

Common rules for fine laboratory techniques call for:

    ·    A laboratory should have a record and a complete up to-date record of all the equipments and their operating manual.
    ·    A laboratory should have a record and detailed up to-date record of all the chemicals including the name of manufacturer with their     grade and arranged alphabetically in specific area
    ·    Strong acid and bases in safe area.
    ·    Chloroform, alcohol which are volatile or toxic must be stored in fume hood.

I. INTRODUCTION

Nations are growing with pace in technology and technological advancements. Till the end of 20th century development was the priority of entire planet earth but in the ending of the 20th century it was realized by almost all countries that development cannot go alone but it has to have the social, economic and environmental concerns. It was realized by the United Nations in Rio Conference on Environment and Development, 1992 that there is need of sustainable development. Now in 21st century the technological advancements are needed to be utilized for saving the planet earth from the curse of climate change and global warming reducing the carbon emissions across the entire planet earth. The argument in this paper is based on, how far technological advancements and technology transfer, by developed countries to developing countries can be facilitated in reduction of the carbon emission and greenhouse gases, through legally binding norms? How there should be synergy in between technologies reducing carbon emission and IPR issues?

5.1 Technology readiness levels- Introduction
Technology readiness levels (TRLs) is measurement of the maturity level of a particular technology. These are based on a scale from 1 to 9, with 9 being the most mature technology. It is a map that shows whether a given technology is in a conceptual state or can be used in real-world applications and ensures innovations are thoroughly tested before being applied on a large scale. The TRL scale uses a set of questions designed to measure progress of a technology toward maturity. They help in reducing risks and improving efficiency. TRLs were initially designed in the 1970s for use by NASA to assess how prepared a technology was for space missions. Technology for space travel is always extremely sophisticated and with a high degree of risk. NASA required a system to assess systematically whether or not a new technology was ready to implement. By breaking down development into different levels, NASA was able to provide informed decisions on which innovations were ready to incorporate (figure 12). In due course, TRL proved to be so effective that other industries began to use it. Other entities like the European Space Agency (ESA), U.S. Department of Defense (DoD), BIRAC, DRDO and many other agencies have taken , to using TRL to guide R&D strategies. TRL helps in simplifying development, decreasing risks, and maximizing resource utilization.

Technology Assessment and Refinement
What is Technology Assessment?
Technology assessment serves as a method or tool for forecasting future technological needs. It helps in envisioning or predicting potential technological developments required by users and in identifying areas where existing technologies can be improved. In agriculture, evaluating a technology means understanding its worth or effectiveness. This evaluation can be done by researchers, farmers, or other relevant stakeholders. The knowledge obtained from such evaluations is essential for creating new technologies, improving existing ones, and ensuring their successful adoption by end users.
The approach to technology assessment varies depending on who is conducting the evaluation, the purpose behind it, and the specific characteristics of the technology being assessed. It is commonly defined as the organized and intentional use of knowledge, skills, and experience to carry out a task or deliver a service that contributes to the well-being of society.
Technology Assessment: Definition and Objectives
According to Strasser (1972), technology assessment is a structured approach to planning and forecasting that identifies various options and associated costs. It considers not only economic factors but also environmental and social impacts, both internal and external to the technology being evaluated. The assessment places emphasis on analyzing both the positive and negative consequences of technologies. As such, institutions involved in the development, refinement, and dissemination of agricultural technologies have a significant stake in conducting technology assessments.

Basics of Technology Commercialization
Technology, a ubiquitous force shaping our world, can be understood from various angles. Here’s a breakdown of its definition, functions, and the fascinating process of its advancement.
Definition
At its core, technology is the application of scientific knowledge for practical purposes. It’s not just about gadgets and gizmos; it encompasses a vast array of systems, processes, and tools that we use to transform the world around us and solve problems. This includes everything from the humble wheel to the intricate workings of artificial intelligence.
Functions
Technology serves a multitude of functions, broadly categorized into:
Simplifying tasks: From automated manufacturing to self-driving cars, technology automates and streamlines processes, saving time and effort.
Enhancing communication and connection: From the internet to social media, technology bridges geographical barriers and fosters global interaction.
Expanding our knowledge and understanding: Scientific instruments, telescopes, and advanced data analysis tools enable us to explore the universe, delve into the microscopic world, and gain deeper insights into various fields.

Basics of Technology Incubation
Technology incubation is a fascinating process that fosters the growth of innovative startups and businesses with high-potential technology. It provides a supportive environment and resources for early-stage companies to develop their ideas, validate their business models, and navigate the challenges of commercialization.
Here’s a breakdown of the key aspects of technology incubation: What happens in a technology incubation?
Pre-incubation: Startups with promising ideas can receive initial guidance and support to refine their concepts and develop a business plan.
Incubation: Selected startups gain access to shared office space, mentorship from experienced professionals, networking opportunities, and access to funding sources.
Post-incubation: Graduated startups continue to receive support in areas like marketing, legal advice, and investor relations as they scale their businesses.
Benefits of Technology Incubation
Reduced risks: Startups can test their ideas and validate their market potential before investing significant resources.
Access to resources: Incubators provide vital resources like office space, equipment, and software, reducing the financial burden on startups.

Technology Promotion
The activity of promoting the transfer of technology by creating opportunities, advertising and organizing technology events.
Promotion is a marketing tool, used as a strategy to communicate between the sellers and buyers. Through this, the seller tries to influence and convince the buyers to buy their products or services. It assists in spreading the word about the product or services or company to the people. The company uses this process to improve its public image. This technique of marketing creates an interest in the mindset of the customers and can also retain them as a loyal customer.
Promotion is a fundamental component of the marketing mix, which has 4 Ps:
1. Product (Warranty, features, variety, quality, design, packaging, brand name)
2. Price (List price, discounts, payment terms, credit)
3. Place (channels, coverage, Types of promotion locations, transportation, inventory)
4. Promotion (advertising, self-marketing/personal, sales promotion, public relations, direct marketing, trade shows, events).

Terminology of experiments
    
Evaluation trials are important in plant breeding where the selected lines are compared with standard varieties. In most cases, it will be necessary to make comparable yield trials under field conditions. In such case, the field becomes the experimental unit. In these cases, the field becomes the experimental unit. It requires the use of small plots and adequately replicated.

Germplasm
 
Germplasm of crop may be defined as sum total of hereditary materials, i.e. all alleles of various genes present in a crop species and its wild relatives. The germplasm can be utilized in a breeding programme in following ways:
•    Direct release as a variety
•    It may be subjected to selection for developing a variety
•    It may be used as one of parents in hybridization programmes

Introduction

Test of pollen viability (extent of pollen viability) is important in pollination experiments to ensure fertility/seed setting. It is also important in monitoring state of pollens during storage in ecological/ taxonomic studies as well as during research on pollen biochemistry, genetics, stigma interactions, and incompatibility studies. Pollen viability refers to the ability of pollen to accomplish post-pollination events to achieve fertilization. Pollen viability test has gained importance particularly in plant breeding and hybrid seed production experiments/ practices. In this chapter, you will be acquainted with the basics of pollen viability test. However, for more professional knowledge on the topic readers are suggested to refer specialized books.

Pollen Viability Test

It is important to know the extent of viability of pollens used in pollination experiment, in finding fertility of a plant of interest, to monitor state of pollen on storage, in ecological/taxonomic studies, as well as in research on biochemistry, genetics, stigma interaction, incompatibility assay, etc. of pollen. Several pollen viability tests have been developed time-to-time. It is recommended to initially use different tests for a given pollen type to find out the most appropriate method that provides reliable result on pollen viability. It is important to note that every procedure requires standardization of protocol according to the sample used. Following different tests are used for assessing pollen viability.

1. In-vitro Pollen Germination Test

It is a simple, speedy, and quantitative test for assessing pollen viability. In this method, a collection/sample of pollen is germinated in vitro and observed under microscope. The percentage of germinating pollens (producing pollen tube) after appropriate treatment and a given period of time is determined. The percentage provides an index of viability of the pollen sample.

Introduction

Seed is a living entity (mature ovule) consisting of a tiny plant in embryonic stage along with the stored food protected by an outer layer known as seed coat. Seed is an important biological input in agriculture, which is economically important for successful crop husbandry. Cotyledons serve as the source of nutrients (proteins, carbohydrates, and oils) that not only nurture the plant at the early developmental (seedling) stages of plant but also the vegetarian (heterotroph) organisms. Being one of the important inputs in agriculture, viability of seed needs to be assessed to know the germination percentage of seeds used to raise a crop. Since viability of seeds may deteriorate on storage depending on the storage conditions. Therefore, often it becomes important to test viability/germinability and vigour of seeds before being used for raising a crop or conducting an experiment. In this chapter, we briefly discuss about the different methods which can be used for testing the viability of seeds.

Seed Viability

Seed viability can be defined as the capability of the seed to germinate and produce a normal seedling within a specified period. In other words, seed viability indicates how many seeds in a lot are alive and could develop into plants under appropriate field conditions. It is very important that most of the stored seeds are capable of germinating when sown in a field. They must possess higher viability at the beginning of storage and maintain it over the storage. A seed with high initial viability survives longer in storage; however, the viability deteriorates slowly at first and then rapidly as the storage prolongs. It is important to know the duration of storage after which a considerable decline in viability occurs under given storage conditions so that to take necessary action to revive the seeds. Excessive deterioration in vianility of seeds may lead to loss of the seed/material/ germplasm.

The concept of gene has undergone several refinements since its discovery in 1866 by Mendel. Most genes encode one polypeptide and can be operationally defined by the complementation test. The complementation or cis-trans test provides an operational definition of the gene. It is used to determine whether mutations are in the same gene or in different genes. Intragenic complementation may occur when a protein is a multimer containing at least two copies of one gene product. The concept of gene has evolved from a bead on a string, not divisible by recombination or mutation to a sequence of nucleotide pairs in DNA encoding one polypeptide chain. The unit of genetic material not divisible by recombination or mutation is the single nucleotide pair. Historically several experimental developments have occurred to facilitate understanding of the structure and function of gene and these are briefly described in a chronological order as follows to have better understanding of the gene concept as it evolved. However, before discussing evidences supporting various gene concepts, it is better to summarize important stages in the evolution of the gene concept.

The International Union for the Protection of New Varieties of Plants or UPOV is an intergovernmental organization with headquarters in Geneva, Switzerland. UPOV was established by the International Convention. The objective of the Convention is the protection of new varieties of plants by an intellectual property right. The Convention was adopted in Paris in 1961 and revised in 1972, 1978 and 1991. UPOV aims to encourage the development of new varieties of plants for the benefit of society by codifying intellectual property for plant breeders.

BE it enacted by Parliament in the Fifty-sixth Year of the Republic of India as Follows :
 
    1.    (1) This Act may be called the Patents (Amendment) Act, 2005. 
        (2) Sub-clause (ii) of clause (a), and clause (b), of section 37, sections 41,42,47,59 to 63 (both inclusive) and 74 shall come into force on such date as the Central Government may, by notification in the Official Gazette, appoint; and the remaining provisions of this Act shall be deemed to have come into force on the 1st day of January, 2005.