eChapters

Seed Viability Test

Germination test for a seed lot is a pre-requisite to know its potential of emergence under field condition. However, this test requires few days to weeks and a month in some cases. Tetrazolium test gives quick information on seed viability or germinability. It makes possible to distinguish red coloured living parts of seeds from the colourless dead ones. Staining of seeds determines  viability.  Completely  stained  seeds  are  viable  while,  partially and comparatively unstained seeds are non-viable. This test is not valid as compared to seed germination test.

I. FILL UPS

1. _____ is the measure of how many seeds are alive and could develop into plants which will reproduce themselves.
2. _____ method is useful for determining viability of forest tree seeds.

Introduction

Seed vigour is an important quality parameter, which needs to be assessed to supplement germination and viability tests to gain insight into the performance of a seed lot in the field or in storage. Several definitions have been offered to explain seed vigour. Isley (1957) defined vigour as “the sum total of all seed attributes, which favour stand establishment under unfavourable field conditions”. While, AOSA (2005) defined seed vigour as the sum total of all those properties in seed, which upon planting, result in rapid and uniform production of healthy seedlings under a wide range of environments, including both favourable and stress conditions and ISTA (1985) stated that seed vigour is the sum total of those properties of the seed, which determine the potential level of performance and activity of a non-dormant seed or seed lot during germination and seedling emergence.

I. FILL UPS

1. Rapid and uniform production of healthy seedling and stand establishment under a wide range of field condition is considered as _____.
2. The sum of those properties of seed which determine the potential level of activity and performance of the seed lot is called _____.
3. Vigour index = _____.

1. DEFINITION

Sum of those properties of seed, which determine the potential level of activity and performance of the seed or seed lot during germination and seedling emergence. i.e., rapid and uniform production of healthy seedling and stand establishment under a wide range of field conditions is considered as seed vigour.

In a vigour test, the seed is introduced to a stressful environment unfavorable to seedling development. This environment can be cool, cold or warm, or a combination of either high humidity and high temperatures, or heavy moisture at low temperatures. A vigor test cannot replace a germination test, but rather supplements it with more information about seed quality.

INTRODUCTION

High crop productivity depends on quality of seed as without good quality seed even if we apply manure, Plant protection measure and other cultural practices it is not possible to produce good quality seed. So the basic seed used for sowing must be healthy and good in quality. It is different from commercial production as it need proper care, good quality basic seed, timely cultural operations, thinning, roguing, timely application of pesticides and fertilizers and maintenance of seed quality through inspections. 
Seed production requires technical skill to achieve all the above advantages for which the best approaches Compact Area Approach or Seed Village Concept.
It is selection of compact area by organizing the seed farmers in the selected area. The selected area must be fertile and suitable for reproduction of good quality seed such areas can be organized for self and cross pollinated crops (Groundnut, Paddy, Pulses, Sorghum) especially for the varietal seed production. But the variety should be one another for whole of the selected area.

Advantages of Seed Village Concepts

1. Isolation and Roguing

For maintenance of genetic purity of the crop it requires isolation and proper rouging. This can be achieved in the compact area programme, as it will be the mutual benefit to the farmers who are concentrating growing on single variety on compact area.

I. FILL UPS

1. Seed village is also known as _____.
2. ITC with Zeneca stands for _____.
3. ITC Zeneca has recently changed name to _____.
4. CENSAR stands for _____.
5. _____ is a compact area approach in which the whole village involved in seed production.
6. The concept of seed village is a _____.
7. Seed village concept was started in_____.
8. _____ has guided the experiment in wheat.
9. _____ is a milestone in green revolution.
10. CAPART stands for _____.

1. DEFINITION

Seed village definition is to see that the aim right from the start is to make a holistic transformation in the village. Seed village concept is a “Win-Win model”, says Deepak Mullick, one of India’s foremost professionals in agribusiness. It is also known as “Compact area approach”. Seed village area should be suitable for crop or varieties. Seed in compact area, whole village should be involved. The whole farmers in the village cultivate same crop, same variety and follow same cultivation practices.

Technically, seed is the sexually produced matured ovule consisting of an intact embryo, endosperm and or cotyledon with protective covering (seed coat). A true seed consist of an embryonic plant, a store of food which consists of cotyledons and endosperm and a protective seed coat. Seed can also be considered as any material that is used for planting or regeneration purpose. Rather than seed, propagating materials like healthy seedlings, tuber, bulbs, rhizome, roots, cuttings, setts, slips, all types of grafts and vegetatively propagating materials used for production purpose is also referred to as seed. Thus, seeds are of two types namely sexual or botanical seed and asexual seed. Both can be used for raising the crops thus forms the agricultural seeds.

Based on the moisture content present, seeds are of two types, orthodox seeds and recalcitrant seeds. Orthodox seeds are the botanical seeds which contain moisture content less than 20%. Such seeds do not germinate even if the moisture content is more than 20% unless artificially forced to germinate. Recalcitrant seeds contain moisture content more than 20% and such seeds will not germinate if moisture content is less than 20%. These seeds cannot be stored for long and for long storage, special structures or conditions are required. Mostly perennial plant species produce this type of seeds.

Botany: Senna, Cassia angustifola belonging to the family Leguminosae is a perennial 1-2 m height undershrub. The stem is erect, smooth, and pale green to light brown with long spreading ascending branches. Leaves are compound with four to eight pairs of leaflets. The full grown leaflets are bluish-green to palegreen in colour and emit a characteristic fetid smell when crushed. The flowers are small and yellow and axillary arranged racemes. The pods are broadly oblong about 5-8 cm long and 2-3 cm broad, green in beginning and change to greenish-brown to dark brown on maturity. Each pod has 5 to 7 ovate, compressed, smooth, dark-brown seeds.

Varieties : KKM - 1, Anand Late Selection, ALFT-2 and Sona

Soil and climate: In Tamil Nadu, it is grown in sandy or sandy loam or laterite soils. It is a hardy warm weather crop grown under rainfed and irrigated conditions. Senna is also cultivated successfully on black cotton soils. It has a great tolerance to high soil salinity, however, shedding of some lower leaves often occurs. The soil pH suited for cultivation is 7.0-8.5. But, the most suitable to sandy loam to loam soils which are more friable and well drained.

Conventional fertilizers often exhibit low nutrient-use efficiency, resulting in nutrient losses, soil degradation, water contamination and unnecessary production costs. Nano-fertilizers offer controlled and targeted nutrient delivery through formulations engineered at the nanoscale. Their high surface-area-to-volume ratio can improve nutrient availability, plant uptake, growth, bulb quality and storage performance while reducing conventional fertilizer requirements. This chapter explains the nature, modes of action and potential benefits of nano-fertilizers in onion production. It also considers nano-biofertilizers, smart nutrient-delivery systems and nano-sensors. Particular attention is given to manufacturing cost, nanotoxicity, effects on soil microorganisms, farmer accessibility and the need for standardized safety and regulatory frameworks.

Efficient nutrient and water management is essential for achieving high onion productivity without degrading soil and water resources. Excessive fertilizer use, poor irrigation practices, groundwater depletion, nutrient imbalance and climate variability can reduce input efficiency and environmental sustainability. This chapter presents soil testing, integrated nutrient management, site-specific nutrient application, microbial interventions, residue management, nanotechnology and digital soil mapping. It also covers drip and sprinkler irrigation, scheduling, fertigation, mulching, rainwater harvesting and other water-conservation practices. Technologies such as SPAD meters, GreenSeeker, GPS, GIS, drones, remote sensing, sensors, artificial intelligence and IoT systems facilitate real-time monitoring, need-based application and climate-smart management of agricultural resources.

Botany:Snake gourd belonging to the family Cucurbitaceae native to Southeastern Asia and Australia but cultivated throughout the world for its curved and oddly shaped fruits that appear like snakes hanging on the supports or ground. This subtropical plant grows very fast in warm climates and produces lots of fruits for a long time. It is suitable for growing for home garden and fresh market.

Climate and soil: Snake gourd is adapted to wide variety of soil and climatic conditions. It requires a minimum temperature of 18^oC during early growth, but optimal temperatures are in the range of 24–27^oC. Snake gourd tolerates a wide range of soil but prefers a well drained sandy loam soil that is rich in organic matter. The optimum soil pH is 6.0–6.7, but plants tolerate alkaline soils up to pH

Varieties: CO1,CO2, PKM 1, PLR 1 and PLR 2.

I. FILL UPS

1. The viability of pollen grains in snakegourd is for _____.
2. Stigma receptivity is for _____hours after opening.
3. The isolation distance for snakegourd foundation seed production is _____.
4. The wild species of snakegourd is _____.

Solanaceae is a plant family that comprising of 2300 species and 85 genera of which, nearly one half of the species belongs to the genus Solanum. The genus Solanum includes both tuber bearing and tuber nonbearing forms. Among the tuber nonbearing forms, the major fruit vegetables growing throughout the world are tomato, brinjal and chilli. They prefer warm humid tropical climate for growth and development. Hence, the agroclimatic regions where this type of climate prevails is suitable for seed production of these vegetables. In addition to this, hybrid vigour has been widely commercially exploited in these crops because of easiness in emasculation and pollination and availability of large number of hybrid seeds per fruit.

Tomato (Solanum esculentum L.)

Tomato is the most important warm season vegetable growing throughout the world. The fruit is valued as salad vegetable and for cooking purpose. It is one of the vegetables from which, a wide variety of processed products are made. The crop is grown throughout the year in one part or other part of the country and it has become one of the indispensable fruit vegetables in our diet. It is rich in vitamin A, vitamin C, niacin, and minerals like calcium, phosphorus etc and it is rich in antioxidant, lycopene which is the carotenoid responsible for the red colour of tomato. Tomato is of recent origin, and it is the native of Peru in South America from where it spread to the entire part of the world.

I. FILL UPS

1. Somatic embryo encased with artificial endosperm and protective cover is called _____.
2. The term artificial seed was coined by_____.
3. The artificial seed technology was patented by_____.
4. The most common gelling agent used for artificial seeds is_____.
5. In desiccated system, the artificial seeds are coated with _____.

I. FILL UPS

1. The inflorescence of sorghum is _____.
2. The pollen viability in sorghum is_____.
3. Spacing adopted in sorghum seed production is _____.
4. Seed rate recommended for sorghum seed production is_____.
5. Seed yield of sorghum is _____.
6. The moisture content of sorghum seed should be _____ during storage.
7. Isolation distance for hybrid sorghum seed production is_____.
8. Sorghum is a_____ pollinated crop.
9. _____ crop is used as a feedstock for production of ethanol.
10. _____ hybridization technique is followed for sorghum.

Introduction

Organic seeds are produced by purchasing conventional non-treated seeds and growing them on organic plot / farm for one season without the use of any synthetic chemical. The seeds harvested are then sold on to organic farmers as organic seeds.

Over 98% of sprayed insecticides and 95% of herbicides reach a destination other than their target species, because they are sprayed or spread across entire agricultural fields. Runoff can carry pesticides into aquatic environments while wind can carry them to other fields, grazing areas, human settlements and undeveloped areas, potentially affecting other species. Other problems emerge from poor production, transport and storage practices.

Production of organic seeds without the use of pesticides like herbicides (weeds), insecticides (insects), fungicides (fungi), nematocides (nematodes), and rodenticides (vertebrate poisons) is a matter of skill and expertise. For this purpose, the seeds used for planting, the soil where they are planted, the water used for irrigation and even the air, need to be kept free of pesticides in order to prevent their contamination.

Seed

Abstract

On average 13 million hectares of the world’s forests disappear every year due to different reasons. Among them forest diseases is one of the prominent factor. Seeds of soft wood and hardwood trees are attacked by fungi and other microbes.  Seed-borne pathogens of wood trees affect nursery seedlings and reduce seed germination and seedling vigor. The micro-organisms that are mostly associated with tree seeds are fungi, bacteria and to a lesser extent viruses. There are many mechanisms by which tree seeds acquire pathogens. Indeed, both the occurrence and severity of many seed-borne fungi, is often traced to the mishandling of fruits, cones or seeds. The majority of pathogens associated with forest tree seeds are fungi, producing only or predominantly the asexual (anamorph) stage (Deuteromycetes).

After attaining green revolution, nutritional security is of utmost importance in the current agricultural scenario. Vegetables play a key role in providing nutritional security in the country. They are important and readily available source of mineral nutrients and vitamins and play a vital role in the financial economy of the majority of small and marginal farmers. Further, these roles are becoming more transparent in the light of agriculture diversification as the vegetables have many agro-economic advantages and can fit into varying cropping systems under diversified conditions. After China, India is a leading vegetable producer but the productivity of vegetables per unit area is very low compared to other developed countries. Poor crop stand establishment is one of the factors responsible for low productivity. Yield and productivity can be improved by using advanced technology on the field preparation, optimum sowing conditions, correct nursery practices and planting methods.

Almost all the vegetable crops are propagated by seed, except a few. Crops are raised either by direct seeding in the field or by transplanting seedlings raised in nurseries. Direct seeding is the placement of seeds at desired depth into the final location where soil environment is ideal for optimum germination and crop stand establishment. On the other side, transplanting refers to removal of actively growing seedlings from one place to another with the purpose of having them continue their growth in the new location until harvest.

The vegetable crops like peas, beans, cowpea, okra, beet leaf, spinach, fenugreek, coriander, carrot, radish, turnip, beetroot, etc. are sown directly in the field, while tomato, eggplant, hot pepper, sweet pepper, onion, leek, sweet potato, cabbage, cauliflower, broccoli, Brussels sprout, kohlrabi, kale, lettuce, celery, parsley, rhubarb, squashes, etc. are first sown in the nursery beds where seedlings are raised and then transplanted in the main field. Both direct seeding and transplanting are practiced in most of the cucurbits like gourds, cucumber, melons and pumpkin.

The directly sown vegetable crops do not respond to transplanting because their embryonic roots do not produce lateral fibrous roots after uprooting unlike transplanted crops where numerous fibrous roots are generated, thus, making the plant to absorb more nutrients.

I. FILL UPS

1. Soybean is also known as_____.
2. _____ is the largest oil seed crop in the world.
3. Soybean is a_____ crop.
4. The isolation distance for soybean is _____.
5. Spacing adopted for soybean is _____.
6. Seed rate for soybean is _____.
7. _____ extracted from soybean oil used as emulsifier and lubricant.

I. FILL UPS

1. _____ is the step in which the seeds are allowed to attain enough water holding capacity facilitating separation.
2. _____ process helps to draw the precise difference between filled live and filled dead seeds in IDS method.
3. PREVAC stands for_____.
4. NIR stands for_____.
5. IDS stands for_____.

Spices are those plants, the products of which imparts strong flavour and aroma to the food. This is attributed to the presence of compounds such as volatile oils present in the plant parts. India is renowned for wide variety of spices and is designated as land of spices. Spices are indispensable ingredient in almost all Indian dishes and cuisines foreign invaders invaded India for spices in ancient times. India is figured as the largest producer, consumer and exporter of spices and spice products in the world. Turmeric and Ginger are the major rhizomatous spices of vegetable origin widely cultivating and using in India. They are known for its antimicrobial and antioxidant properties, hence using in medicines for the treatment of various ailments. Apart from these rhizomatous spices, India is also contributing a major share in the production of seed spices. Around twenty spices among sixty-three spices growing in our country are classified as seed spices. Major seed spices of India are coriander, cumin, fennel, fenugreek, dill, ajowain, celery, anise, nigella, caraway etc. These seed spices are extensively cultivated in the arid to semi-arid region of India as Rabi crop.

It is estimated that, spice production in our country increased from 67.64 lakh tonnes in 2014-15 to 106.79 lakh tonnes in 2020-21 with an annual growth rate 7.9%. There is a corresponding increase in the area of cultivation also. An increase in area from 32.24 lakh hectare to 45.28 lakh hectare was observed. Among the major spices, cumin (14.8%), garlic (14.7%), ginger (7.5%), fennel (6.8%), coriander (6.2%), fenugreek (5.8%), red chilli (4.21%) and turmeric (1.3 %), showed significant growth rate in production. The export of spices contributes around 41% of the total export earnings from all horticulture crops in the country and it ranks fourth among agricultural commodities, after marine products, non-basmati rice and basmati rice.

Seed size is an important parameter of seed vigor as it in influences the performance of seed in soil. Seed bulk at harvest contains a wide range of seed sizes but these may not all be of equal value for sowing. Farmers have always realized the necessary of using uniform seeds for good viability to obtain high emergence and growth. This will also help in getting optimum plant population and higher yields.
 
The influence of seed size on seedling vigor and crop productivity has already been proven since the days Hannaford who was considered as father of seed processing. To achieve uniformity in seed size this optimum sieve/screen size is very critical for optimum seed recovery and economical seed yield. Though the screen sizes are standardized for different crops but vary with different varieties. The shop floor should continuously explore and fine tune screen sizes for different varieties.

3.1. Multiple Choice Questions

1. The Σ of probability will be
   1. 1.0
   2. 2.0
   3. 3.0
   4. 0.5
2. Frequency distribution can be converted in probability by calculating -------------------------------------- ?? each class which can be consider the probability of that class
   1. Individual frequency
   2. Relative frequency
   3. Both relative and individual frequency
   4. None of the above
3. In binomial distribution, mean is always greater than ---------------------------------------------------------------------------- ??.
   1. Median
   2. Mode
   3. Variance
   4. All of the above

Onion bulbs remain vulnerable to moisture loss, sprouting, rotting and microbial deterioration during extended storage. Traditional structures frequently provide inadequate ventilation and expose produce to fluctuating temperature and humidity. This chapter examines scientific curing and storage technologies, including improved ventilated structures, zero-energy cool chambers, forced-air systems and controlled or modified atmospheres. Renewable-energy and solar-powered facilities are considered for small and marginal farmers. The chapter also discusses value addition through dehydration, powdering, flaking, pickling, paste production and other processed products. Improved storage enables gradual market release and price stabilization, while value addition reduces waste, creates diversified products, enhances shelf life and generates additional income for growers and processors.

These materials include barrier coated paper bags, barrier laminated film bags, jute bags, PP woven box bag and cotton bags.
 
A: Paper Bags
    1.    Coated paper:  bags provide a barrier for leaking or staining of the product. This can be done by a greaseproof or claycoated kraftpaper.
    2.    Open-Mouth sacks:  can be manufactured using different types of paper. Simple kraftliner, glossy claycoated and lacquered outerliner are possible. These sacks can be supplied with liners and printed up to 8 colours.

PPEs are the personal protection equipments which protect the personnel against some hazards in the shop floor. PPEs form important aspects of Environment (safe disposal of treated chemicals, dusts coming out of processing), Safety (to seed storages) and Health (personnel) (ESH) strategy of any shop floor.

I. FILL UPS

1. _____ is the fastest growing oilseed crop in India.
2. The inflorescence of sunflower is _____.
3. The tiny flowers (or) florets are attached on a platform called _____.
4. Sunflowers in bud stage exhibit _____.
5. _____ is a tuft of hairs on the fruit.

Introduction

Synthetic seeds are defined as artificially encapsulated somatic embryos, shoot buds, cell aggregates, or any other tissue that can be used for sowing as a seed and that possess the ability to convert into a plant under in vitro or ex vitro conditions and retained its potentiality also after storage (Capuano et al., 1998). In other words, synthetic or artificial seeds defined as somatic embryos engineered seed used in the commercial propagation of plants (Gray and Purohit, 1991; Redenbaugh, 1993).

Artificial seeds have great potential for large scale production of plants at low cost as an alternative to true seeds (Roy and Mandal, 2008). An artificial seed is often described as a novel analogue to true seed consisting of a somatic embryo surrounded by an artificial coat which is at most equivalent to an immature zygotic embryo, possibly at post-heart stage or early cotyledonary stage (Bekheet, 2006). There are various advantages of artificial seeds such as better and clonal plants could be propagated similar to seeds, preservation of rare plant species extending biodiversity could be realized, and more consistent and synchronized harvesting of important agricultural crops would become a reality, among many other possibilities (Khor and Loh, 2005). In addition, ease of handling, potential long-term storage and low cost of production and subsequent propagation are other benefits (Bekheet, 2006).

1. DEFINITION

Artificial seed technology involves the production of tissue culture derived somatic embryos encased in a protective coating. Artificial seeds have also been often referred to as synthetic seeds. However, the term ‘synthetic seed’ should not be confused with commercial seeds of a synthetic cultivar which is defined as an advanced generation of an open pollinated population composed of a group of selected inbred clones or hybrids. The concept of artificial or synthetic seed is shown in Figure 1.

Synthetic seeds are also known as somatic seeds, artificial seeds, clonal seeds and synseeds. They are analogue for botanical seeds. Somatic embryoids which are tissue culture produced embyoids with bipolar structures, apical and basal meristematic regions which are capable of forming shoot and root respectively. Somatic embryoids are encapsulated and are used as artificial seeds possessing the ability to convert into plants in in vitro and ex vitro conditions. Artificial seeds are broadly two types.

1. HAND EMASCULATION AND POLLINATION

The male part of seed parent is removed by hand before anthesis to check the self pollination from the crop plants with bisexual flower having fertile male and female part. This process is known as emasculation. These emasculated flowers are then pollinated by the pollens collected from pollinator parent to produce hybrid seed (Fig. 1). Eg. Cotton, tomato, brinjal.

5.1 Technology readiness levels- Introduction
Technology readiness levels (TRLs) is measurement of the maturity level of a particular technology. These are based on a scale from 1 to 9, with 9 being the most mature technology. It is a map that shows whether a given technology is in a conceptual state or can be used in real-world applications and ensures innovations are thoroughly tested before being applied on a large scale. The TRL scale uses a set of questions designed to measure progress of a technology toward maturity. They help in reducing risks and improving efficiency. TRLs were initially designed in the 1970s for use by NASA to assess how prepared a technology was for space missions. Technology for space travel is always extremely sophisticated and with a high degree of risk. NASA required a system to assess systematically whether or not a new technology was ready to implement. By breaking down development into different levels, NASA was able to provide informed decisions on which innovations were ready to incorporate (figure 12). In due course, TRL proved to be so effective that other industries began to use it. Other entities like the European Space Agency (ESA), U.S. Department of Defense (DoD), BIRAC, DRDO and many other agencies have taken , to using TRL to guide R&D strategies. TRL helps in simplifying development, decreasing risks, and maximizing resource utilization.

I. FILL UPS

1. _____ is a technology that eliminates or reduces the germination capacity of the following seed germination.
2. _____ technology offers a means of preventing the unwanted flow of genes from genetically modified organisms.
3. Terminator technology is technically known as _____.
4. _____ technology is used to protect the transgenes from being pirated by researches elsewhere.
5. _____ is a inducer used to initiate the terminator gene interaction.

Introduction

Seeds are regarded as carriers of new technology and serve as basic catalytic input for enhancing the agricultural production. Hence the timely availability of quality seeds of the right variety in adequate quantity decides the strength of an agricultural economy. The intensive crop improvement programmes have resulted in the development of large number of hybrids and high yielding varieties in many important crops. Today, the Indian seed industry is the fifth largest seed market in the world, accounting for 4.4 per cent of global seed market. In terms of global trade, India is almost self-sufficient in flower, fruits and vegetables and field crops seeds (Anonymous, 2015). Economy of crops depends on good crop variety. Farmers choose these verities based on good quality traits and satisfactory yield. Thus, it is always essential to do fidelity check of all plant variety. The genetic purity is one of the most important aspects of quality control. Seed quality includes good germination, purity, seed health and vigour. With the increase in seed industry, there has been a refinement in the techniques used for testing genetic purity or genuineness of seed purity. Methods for testing genetic purity include different morphological, chemical, biochemical and molecular markers. Under PPV & FR Act, DUS (distinctiveness, uniformity, stability) testing procedure is performed with morphological descriptors. However, in agriculture, biotechnology has found applications in checking of true to type of clones and variety identification programs using molecular and chemical markers. Markers that reveal polymorphisms at the protein level are known as biochemical markers, while DNA markers reveal polymorphisms at the DNA level.

Mechanical damage in oil seeds like soya bean can be induced at any time during harvesting, handling, conditioning and sowing operations. There is relationship between moisture and mechanical damage. In general the low moisture containing seeds are more prone for mechanical damage than the high moisture containing seeds. In this experiment we look for this relationship by measuring seed quality parameters like germination and leakage (electrical conductivity).

Preliminary

1. Short title and extent

1. This Order may be called the Seeds (Control) Order, 1983
2. It extends to the whole of India
3. It shall come into force on the 30th December, 1983

An Act to provide for regulating the quality of certain seeds for sale, and for matters connected therewith. It enacted by Parliament in the Seventeenth Year of the Republic of India.

1. Short Title, Extent and Commencement

• This Act may be called the Seeds Act, 1966.
• It extends to the whole of India.
• It shall come into force on such date as the Central Government may, by notification in the Official Gazette, appoint, and different dates may be appointed for different provisions of this Act, and for different States or for different areas thereof.

A bill to provide for regulating the quality of seeds for sale, import and export and to facilitate production and supply of seeds of quality and for matters connected therewith or incidental thereto. Be it enacted by Parliament in the Fifty-Fifth Year of the Republic of India as follows

Part I - Preliminary

1. Short title: These rules may be called the Seeds Rules, 1968
2. Definitions: In these rules, unless the contest otherwise requires.

Removal of seeds from dry fruits is known as threshing while that of wet fruits is known as extraction. Threshing involves beating or rubbing the plant material to detach the seed from its pod or fruit. The detached seed is then winnowed to remove chaff, straw and other light material from the seed.

Threshing / extraction methods

1. Mechanical threshing

• Various types of threshing machines with adjustable cylinder speeds are available for extraction of vegetable seeds.
• Care must be taken to avoid damage to the seed during mechanical threshing, by properly adjusting the speed of the beaters, the width of the gap between the beaters and the concave, the airflow and the sieve sizes.

Tomato is one of the most popular and widely grown nutritious vegetable in the world. Tomato (Lycopersicum esculentum Linnacus Karst.) belonging to the family Solanaceae is one of the most nutritious and remunerative vegetable crop. It is the world’s important vegetable next to potato. The crop is cultivated throughout the year. In Northern plains, the crop is cultivated during autumn, spring and summer. In South India, the crop is grown in June – July, October – November and January – February. The optimum season for seed production in southern India is October – December. Nursery raised in late October and transplanted in the first week of December will produce a good seed crop.

I. FILL UPS

1. Tomato is a _____ pollinated crop.
2. _____ pigment is responsible for red colour of tomato.
3. Seed rate recommended for tomato is _____.
4. Isolation distance recommended for foundation seeds of tomato is _____.
5. Spacing adopted for tomato is _____.

Abstract

In afforestation and reforestation programs, seed has become a valuable commodity and its collection, identification, handling, processing, testing, storage and certification requires prudent planning. The research and development in seed science and technology have made significant progress in recent years. The quality of seed has been the subject of increasing interest among Forest Managers and the Scientists. Not every seed is suitable for sowing. Sometimes, the seeds do not develop into normal plants or the plants produced do not produce the expected harvest. This manuscript reviews, the progress made to-date in the forest tree seed germination and highlights future line of action.

In view of fast development of industrial sector and rapid urbanization, the vegetable gardening of various types has great scope for providing food and nutritional security, promoting health, solving employment problem and raising the economic status of an individual and the country as a whole. In many of the developing countries, protein-energy malnutrition is the most important health problem, which has long-term ailing consequences. Iron and vitamin A deficiencies are also potent contributors towards morbidity, mortality, underweight and stunted growth of individuals. Vegetables from homestead gardens can combat these dreaded social nuisances. In many cases, indigenous vegetables, gathered or grown wild, are more nutritious than foreign high value exotic species (Drescher, 1998). Various types of vegetable farming are being practiced the world over depending on the area available and objectives for the disposal of the produce. Based on the mode of disposal, the vegetable gardening can be categorized into two types:

Variety is a group of plants having clear distinguished characters which when reproduced either sexually or asexually retains their characters. The genetic purity of a variety or trueness to its type deteriorates due to several factors during the production cycles. The factors that are responsible for loss of genetic purity during seed production are :

• Developmental Variation
• Mechanical Mixtures
• Mutations
• Natural Crossing
• Genetic drift
• Minor Genetic Variation
• Selective influence of Diseases
• Techniques of the Breeder
• Breakdown of male sterility
• Improper/defective seed certification System

I. FILL UPS

1. The seed colour of cv COH₂ is _____.
2. The special appendage present in castor is called _____.
3. Modified phenol test was identified by _____ for pearl millet hybrids.
4. _____ test is for the varietal identification of sorghum.

Varietal Seed Production Technology At a Glance

1. INTRODUCTION

For maintenance of genetic purity in the field with the seed crop and to test verify the standards in certification programme, the studies on varietal characterization and identification have attracted the attention of breeders, breeder’s right protection institutions, farmers, the seed industry, certification agencies, and seed testing laboratories with a view to assure the quality of seed marketed to the consumers.