eChapters

I. FILL UPS

1. _____ is the necessary component for vitamins.
2. _____ is vital for seed formation.
3. _____ is essential for protein synthesis.
4. _____ is essential for nut development in peanuts.
5. _____ is the key element for chlorophyll production.
6. _____ is the integral part of amino acids.
7. _____ is essential for seed and cell wall formation.
8. _____ catalyzes several plant processes.

1. PRESENCE OF OBJECTIONABLE WEEDS

Objectionable weeds present in the seed crop of the respective species should be removed and destroyed before flowering. They should be verified during field inspection (Table 1). The maximum permitted limit of objectionable weed in seed crop is presented in table 2.

I. FILL UPS

1. The objectionable weed of paddy is _____.
2. The objectionable weed of sunflower is _____.
3. The objectionable weed of oat is _____.
4. The objectionable weed of napier grass _____

Okra is a tropical vegetable cultivating for its tender fruits. It is one of the major vegetable crops in India which can be grown in summer as well as rainy season. Fruits are rich in vitamin A, vitamin C and minerals like calcium, phosphorus, iodine, iron, and potassium. Dry fruit skins and fibers are valued for manufacture of paper and card boards. The processed product, dehydrated okra plays a considerable role in export earnings. Dried seeds of okra found to have 20-24 percent protein and 13-22% edible oil hence, used for edible oil production. Mucilaginous stem is used for clarification of cane juice for preparing jaggery. Roasted ground seed are used as coffee substitute.

Cultivated okra is believed to be originated in tropical and subtropical Africa and phytogeographic studies indicated that it arose in Abyssinian region (Ethiopia). However, existence of large number of related species with wide variability and dominant characters suggested India as the secondary centre of origin. Some researchers suggested Hindustani centre of origin mainly India, Pakistan, & Burma.

Morphology and Pollination

Okra is an erect robust herbaceous annual with green or green with reddish tinged stem. Leaves are alternate, 3-7 lobbed, palmate, hirsute and serrate. Flowers are solitary, bisexual, axillary, peduncle is 2 cm long, epicalyx is up to 10 and bracteoles narrow and hairy. Calyx is fused with corolla hence falls with corolla after anthesis. Petals are 5, separate, yellow coloured with crimson spot on claw. Staminal column consists of numerous stamens (80-120) which are united to the base of the petals. Ovary is superior, stigma is small, 5-8 fid and deep red. Fruit is pyramidal and oblong beaked capsule, longitudinally furrowed, hirsute or glabrous, dehisce longitudinally when ripe. Seeds are dark green to dark brown, round and tuberculate.

I. FILL UPS

1. _____ crop stabilizes the blood sugar by curbing the rate at which sugar is absorbed from the intestinal tract.
2. Okra is _____ crop.
3. The isolation distance adopted for okra for foundation seeds is _____.
4. Seed rate of okra is _____.

Onion is one of the oldest cultivated plant species. Onion forms the bulb in the first year and the seed in the second year. The leaves arise from a shortened crown stem. The sheaths of the older or outermost leaves enclose the younger ones. The basal portion of the leaves encircles the stem, and thickens to form the bulb. The stem elongates during the second year forming the flower stalk. The onion has a fibrous root system extending to a depth of over one meter, but most of them are found in upper surface about one-half meter area.

Processing extends onion availability and transforms perishable bulbs into stable, marketable products such as dehydrated flakes, powder, paste and pickles. Onion is also rich in phenolic acids, flavonols, anthocyanins and organosulphur compounds associated with antioxidant, antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory and cardioprotective properties. This chapter explains processing operations, quality preservation and the commercial importance of value-added onion products. It also addresses the large quantities of peels, outer scales and trimmings generated during processing. These residues contain quercetin, polyphenols, dietary fibre and other useful compounds that can be recovered for functional foods, nutraceuticals, natural antioxidants, biofuels and biodegradable materials, supporting waste reduction and a circular bioeconomy.

I. FILL UPS

1. Onion is a bulbous _____ herb.
2. Onion is a _____ pollinated crop.
3. Thin white mass within the seed coat is called _____.
4. _____ method is commonly followed for onion seed production.
5. The minimum isolation distance for foundation seed is _____.

1. INTRODUCTION

Green Revolution Technologies (GRT) such as greater use of synthetic agrochemicals like fertilizers and pesticides, adoption of nutrient responsive high yielding varieties, greater exploitation of irrigation potentials etc. have boosted the production output in most cases. However, continuous use of these high energy inputs indiscriminately now leads to decline in production and productivity of various crops as well as deterioration of soil health and environment. The most unfortunate impacts of GRT on Indian Agriculture are imbalance in production, dependency on synthetic chemical fertilizers, increase in secondary and micronutrient deficiencies, increase in pesticide use, unscientific water management and distribution, reduction in productivity, reduction in quality of the produce, extinction of gene pool, environmental pollution and imbalance in social and economic status.

Moreover, today the rural economy is now facing a challenge of over dependence on outside inputs and day-by-day increase in price of these inputs. Further, Indian Agriculture will face the market competition due to globalization of trade as per World Trade Organization (WTO). Thus, apart from quantity, quality will be the important factor. Such varieties of concern and problems of modern Indian Agriculture gave birth to various new concepts of farming such as organic farming, natural farming, biodynamic agriculture, do-nothing agriculture, eco-farming, etc. Therefore, for sustaining the productivity of the crop, maintaining the soil health and healthy ecosystem, there is a need for adoption of an alternative farming system, may be the organic farming.

Organic farming is not new to Indian farming community. Several forms of organic farming are being successfully practiced in diverse climate, particularly in rainfed, tribal, mountain hills and resource poor areas of the country. It safeguards/improves quality of resources and environment. It is labour intensive and provides an opportunity to increase rural employment.

For a product to be called and labelled “organic”, it should have been produced from start (seed) to end (the produces, the consumer is buying) in an organic way. International Federation of Organic Movement (IFOAM) has clearly laid down the condition that in order to get organic certification to the produces, the seed used for sowing should also have been produced organically. To enter into organic agriculture, timely research has been warranted to study the strategies and efficacies of organic seed production to fulfill the global organic seed demand.

Organic seed production system involves use of organic seed quality enhancement treatments, integrated organic nutrient management practices viz., organic manures, green manures and biofertilizers etc., and integrated organic plant protection viz., agronomic practices, crop rotation, growing border/trap crops and use of botanicals, biopesticides and biocontrol agents apart from encouraging natural parasites, predators and parasitoids etc.

Organically produced seeds are obtained by adapting the organic crop production system. Organic seed is a critical input but specialised efforts to produce organic seeds are not adequately and systematically followed. Accredited organic farming standards recognises the organic seed production as a prerequisite to organic farming. Seed health is important in organic seeds since seeds are not treated with chemical fungicides.

Onion (Allium cepa L.) is one of the oldest and most widely cultivated vegetable crops, with a history of domestication extending over five thousand years. Valued for its culinary, medicinal, nutritional and cultural importance, it has travelled across continents through migration, trade and agricultural exchange. Its broad ecological adaptability has enabled cultivation in temperate, subtropical and tropical regions. The chapter examines probable centres of origin, historical evidence of cultivation, domestication and geographical dispersal. It also explains onion’s nutritional and therapeutic significance, global production status, genetic diversification and role in human civilization, providing a historical foundation for understanding modern onion improvement and cultivation.

What is seed?

“A seed is an embryo, a living organism securely fixed in the supporting or the food storage tissue.”

A true seed is defined as “Structurally a true seed is a fertilized matured ovule, consisting of an embryonic plant, a store of food and a protective seed coat, a store of food consists of cotyledons and endosperm”. In broad sense, “seed is a material which is used for planting or regeneration purpose”. Scientifically, “seed is a fertilized matured ovule together covered with seed coat is called seed” or “it is a propagating material i.e., part of agriculture, sericulture, silviculture and horticultural plants used for sowing or planting purpose”.

The business of Seed Technology is to protect this biological entity and look after its ‘welfare’, while the focus of Food Technology is on the second component – the supporting tissue.

I. FILL UPS

1. Pearl millet is a_____ pollinated crop.
2. An example for protogyny is_____.
3. The isolation distance for foundation seed production of pearl millet is _____.
4. The spacing adopted for pearl millet is _____.
5. Seed yield of pearl millet is_____.
6. The moisture content of pearl millet seed during storage should be_____.
7. The planting ratio for pearl millet hybrid seed production is _____.
8. Presence of fertile counter part of female plants in the female rows is called _____.
9. In some female plants, fertile anthers may be hanging out only from a portion of the panicle. Such plants are called _____.
10. _____ technique is used for hybrid seed production of pearl millet.

Botany : Pea is a self pollinated crop. Time of anthesis is 5.45 to 6.30 AM. Time of dehiscence is 5.45 to 7.30 AM. Duration of pollen futility is on the day of anthesis to 24 hr there after. Duration of stigma receptivity is 48 hr before and 24 hr after anthesis.

Method of seed production : Var: Open pollination ; Hybrids: Emasculation and Pollination

Varieties / Hybrids

Early varieties : Arlcel, Matar Ageta 8, Early Badger, Pant Uphar, Hisar Harit, P.M. 2, Jawahar Matar 4, Meteor, Alaska, Lucknow Boniya, Pant Sabzi Matar 3, Pant Matar 2, VL Ageti Matar 7, Asauj.

Mid season varieties: Bonneville, Lincoln, VL 3, Shalimar Matar, Solan Nirog, Jawahar Matar 1, Pant Uphar, p88, Khapar Kheda, JP. 83, JP71, NP. 289, T19

Late varieties: Kinnauri

TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS

2.1 Mango
 

Mango is considered to be an allopolyploid. The chromosome number is 2n =40. The polyembryonic seedlings of cv. Vellaikolumban, earlier reported to be 2n= 80 was later shown to be a diploid. In Canary Island, a putative tetraploid viz Gomera-1 has been identified.

Floral biology

Flower starts opening early in the morning from 4-7 a.m. and maximum flowers open between 9.30-10.30 a.m. and complete 11 a.m. Dehiscence of anthers takes place at 11.30 a.m. and it continues up to 3.45 p.m. The pollen grains are oval, or triangular or oblong. Stigma becomes receptive even 18 hours before flower opening. Mode of pollination is entomophily; nectar is present to attract the insects.

The flowering duration is usually of short i.e. 2 to 3 weeks. The mango inflorescence or panicle bears mainly two types of flowers - male and perfect. The number of flowers per panicle varies between 1000 to 6000 depending upon the variety and climatic factors. The percentage of perfect flowers varies between 0.74 per cent in Rumani, 16.41 to 55.7 per cent in Neelum and up to 69.8 per cent in Langra.

Botany: Periwinkles (Catharanthus roseus) belonging to the family Apocynaceae are evergreen perennials that produce bright blue flowers. They grow best in well-draining, moist soil and partial sun to full shade. They work well as sprawling groundcover or border plants and bloom from early spring to early fall. Periwinkles are often grown as transplants, but they can be started from seed about 10 weeks before the last frost with the proper care.

Varieties: Nirmal, Dhawal and Prabal

Soil and climate: It is suited to all types of soil and tropical climatic conditions. Well distributed annual rainfall of 100 cm or more is ideal for raising as a rainfed crop.

Seeds and planting: Propagated through seeds either by direct sowing or throughtransplanting.

Seed rate: 2.5 kg/ha : Direct sowing

0.5 kg/ha : Through seedlings

45 - 60 days old seedlings are transplanted at a spacing of 45 x 20 cm during June - July or September - October.

Pre sowing seed treatment: Fortification with GA3 100 ppm (or) moringa leaf extract 2% for 16 h (or)KH₂PO4 2% for 16 hours

Age of the seedling for transplanting: The seeds are first sown in primary nursery (pot) and after 16 day the seedlings are transplanted to raised nursery and after 24 days transplanted to main field.

4.1 Phases of technology transfer
To translate laboratory research into market ready product, it is important to understand steps or phases involved in this technology transfer process. The process typically includes six main phases, each with a different role (figure 9).
4.1.1 Research
Technology transfer begins with research, the critical stage of exploring and discovering novel knowledge, technologies, or innovations that may have potential commercial applications. The research phase can occur in academic institutions, research organizations, or private sector companies, often funded by public or private sources. Thorough research ensures that the technologies being transitioned are scientifically and technically robust, thereby increasing their potential for market success. Therefore, the research phase involves creating and evaluating new ideas, confirming their feasibility, and identifying IP prospects, all of which are key components of TT success.
4.1.2 Innovation disclosure
Innovation disclosure is the first formal step where the innovation is reported to the appropriate TTO or IP management team. This process ensures that the institution or organization recognizes the innovation and evaluates its potential for protection and commercialization. It includes following information:

Botany

Phyllanthus is an herb common to Central and Southern India. It can grow to 30–60 centimeters in height and blooms with many yellow flowers. All parts of the plant are employed therapeutically. It is a small erect annual herb 10-60 cm tall widespread in tropical areas. Leaves are small elliptical - oblong and flowers are whitish green & minute. It bears ascending herbaceous branches. The bark is smooth and light green. The fruits are tiny, smooth capsules containing seeds.Kizhanelli is a circum-tropical weed, thriving well under tropical conditions. In India, it grows abundantly up to 700m altitude in Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal, Orissa, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Kerala.

Major constituents – Phyllanthin (0.4-0.5%) and Hypophyllanthin

Uses- Hepatitis B and Jaundice

Physical purity test determines the proportion of pure seed, other crop seed, weed seed, inert matter, moisture and germination components in the seed lot by weight in percentage in accordance to prescribed Seed Standards. It thus, helps in improving the plant stand, raising a pure crop by eliminating other crop seeds, weed seeds and disease free-seeds. Seed must not be sold until the percentage of pure seed, other crop seed, weed seed, and inert matter are in accordance to seed physical purity standards. Physical purity test is required for seed certification or seed law enforcement and it is a pre-requisite for ger- mination test.