eChapters

11.14. Nanotechnology 11.14.1. Concept • Nanotechnology is science, engineering, and technology conducted at the nanoscale, which is about 1 to 100 nanometers. • Physicist Richard Feynman is considered as father of nanotechnology. The idea and concepts behind nanoscience and nanotechnology started with a talk entitled “There is Plenty of Room at the Bottom” by physicist Richard Feynman at an American Physical Society Meeting at the California Institute of Technology on December 29, 1959, long before the term nanotechnology was used. In his talk, Feynman described a process in which scientists would be able to manipulate and control individual atoms and molecules. Over a decade a later, in his explorations of ultra precision machining, Professor Norio Taniguchi coined the term nanotechnolog

Bitter gourd (Momordica charantia) is a widely grown vegetable variety in India. It is one of the important members of the family Cucurbitaceae. The seed production can be done throughout the year in tropical climate and during spring, summer and rainy season in subtropical climates. In Tamil Nadu September – October is suitable for seed production. In hills seed production can be done during summer season.

I. FILL UPS

1. _____ vegetable contain anti-diabetic properties.
2. Bittergourd has _____ similar to bovine insulin.
3. Bittergourd is popularly seen as a _____.
4. Bittergourd is a _____ plant.

I. FILL UPS

1. Blackgram is commonly known as _____.
2. Adopted spacing for blackgram is _____.
3. Seed rate for blackgram is _____.
4. Moisture content must be reduced to _____ for short term storage of blackgram seeds
5. Isolation distance for blackgram seed crop is _____.

Onion is an economically significant bulb crop cultivated across diverse agroecological environments. Its cultivars vary considerably in bulb size, shape, colour, pungency, maturity, storage behaviour and photoperiod response. Understanding its vegetative and reproductive morphology, growth habit, physiology and taxonomic relationships is fundamental to crop improvement and germplasm conservation. This chapter examines the botanical features and taxonomic position of onion within the genus Allium. It explains relationships among cultivated types, landraces and allied species and discusses varietal classification according to climatic adaptation and consumer preference. Classical characterization and molecular taxonomy are considered important tools for developing productive, resilient and market-preferred onion cultivars.

Botany: Bottle gourds belonging to the family cucurbitaceae is an annual vine having white flowers and smooth, large, hard-shelled gourds. Brownish seeds are numerous in a whitish green pulp. Each seed is somewhat rectangular in shape with grooved notches near the attached end. Grown most often in warmer climates, this squash grows from 6 to 36 inches long and 3 to 12 inches in diameter.

Seeds leaves, flowers and young stems are all edible. Helpful in shedding extra calories. It contains higher concentrations of Dietary Fiber, Vitamin A, Vitamin C, Vitamin K, Vitamin B6, Folate, Potassium, Manganese, Protein, Vitamin E, Thiamin, Riboflavin, Pantothenic Acid, Calcium, Iron, Magnesium, Phosphorus and Selenium. A rich source of minerals and vitamins, bottle gourds contains many healing and medicinal properties. The cooked vegetable is not only easy to digest but also contains cooling, calming (or sedative), diuretic properties. It contains low calories also has iron, Vitamin C and B complex. Regular consumption of this vegetable provides relief to people suffering with digestive problems, diabetics and convalescents.

Diseases of plants are produced by a variety of organisms from plant and animal kingdoms viz., fungi, bacteria, viruses, nematodes and insects. The diseases reduce total biomass (dry matter) production and consequently yield of the crop by general stunting, damage to the leaf tissues, fruits and seeds or by killing the plants. The degree of damage would depend upon the intensity of infection but both need not be proportional. One serious effect of disease is the disappearance from cultivation of otherwise excellent but susceptible varieties.

Vegetable crops have been found to be highly susceptible to biotic stresses from the disease causing microorganisms and insects-pests. The ability of pathogen and insect-pests to attack and proliferate in the host plant is highly specific. There are wide differences in the host plants in response to the attack by pathogens and insects. Although control of the diseases and insects by the use of chemicals is possible to certain extent but indiscriminate use of fungicides or insecticides over the crop has several disadvantages. Besides increasing cost involved in chemical control, residual toxicity of the chemicals such as fungicides, antibiotics and insecticides in food chain and development of resistance against pathogens and insect-pests to different chemicals are serious problems.

Genetic improvement of host plants conferring resistance to diseases and insect-pests is considered to be the best approach in the management of diseases and insect-pests, and this is more particularly true in case of vegetable crops. Indiscriminate use of chemicals in the vegetable sector has led to health hazard. This has resulted in switching towards organic vegetables. However, cost of production of organic vegetables naturally will not permit the common people to consume these products. Therefore, the best option is to induce resistance in the host varieties. The resistant varieties could in turn be an important component in the organic vegetable farming, thereby reducing cost of production to certain extent.

17.1 Introduction

Almond or badam is a high energy nut. Almond kernels contain lipids (52.2%), protein (20%), carbohydrate (20.4%) and water-soluble sugars (4.4%). Irrigation affects almond yield and quality. Almond quality is primarily genotype dependent. Maturity at harvest can also influence kernel quality.

12.1 Introduction

Aonla (also called Amla, Indian gooseberry) is a tropical and sub-tropical fruit. It is mainly recognized due to its high nutritive, medicinal and therapeutic properties. It contains high amount of vitamin C (500-1500 mg/100 g); it is also rich in pectin, iron, calcium and phosphorus. Dried fruits of aonla are used in curing haemorrhage, diarrhoea, chronic dysentery, diabetes, jaundice, dyspepsia, cough etc. Aonla is the main ingredient of Chavanprash and Triphala powder. The fruit contains gallic acid and leucoanthocyanin which have antioxidant property. Its cultivation is more common and widely grown in Uttar Pradesh, Gujarat, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh and Tamil Nadu.

14.1 Introduction

Apple is the most widely grown temperate fruit of the world. It is considered as King of temperate fruits. It is rich in carbohydrate, calcium, phosphorous, iron, potassium, vitamin B6 . Apple is rich in antioxidant, flavonoids and dietary fibre. It is recommended to reduce the incidence of dental caries. The phytonutrients and antioxidants may help reduce the risk of developing cancers, hypertensions, diabetes and heart disease. Apple is mainly used for table purpose. The various processed products are prepared from fruit, e.g., juice, jelly, preserve, canned slice, wine, concentrated juice, cider and powder. It is widely cultivated in Afghanistan, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Bhutan, China, India, Indonesia, Iraq, Iran, Israel, Japan, Jordan etc.

20.1 Introduction

Arecanut (or betel palm) is chewed as narcotic either alone or more commonly along with betel leaf. Its nut has medicinal and pharmaceutical properties. About 1/10th of world population has a habit of betel chewing. Nut contains polyphenol (11-18 %) which includes flavonols like catechin, epicatechin, leucocyanidin, fat (9-15%), polysaccharides (17-25%), fibre and protein (6- 7.5%) and some minerals like calcium, phosphorous and iron.

4.1 Introduction

Banana (Musa spp.) is one of the oldest fruits and second largest growing fruit crop in the world. It is also known as Adam’s Fig and Apple of Paradise. Important banana growing states are Maharashtra, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Odisha, Bihar, West Bengal and Assam. In South India, banana is extensively used in all auspicious occasions such as wedding, festival and worship. Banana is a good table fruit. The cultivar Nendran is used for cooking; it is also used for preparation of halwa, sweet, chips etc. Main bud or heart of banana bunches is also used as vegetable in India, Thailand, Philippines, Malaysia and Indonesia. Musa textiles is known for strong fibre quality. Ripe banana contains about 20% sugar (but no starch) and about 4.7% protein. Further, it contains vitamins A, B, C, D and E and minerals such as K, P, Ca and Fe.

11.1 Introduction

Ber (also called Indian Jujube, Indian Plum, Chinese Apple and Masau) is an important minor fruit of India. It is most widely cultivated in Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Bihar, Gujarat, Maharashtra etc. Fruits are mostly eaten fresh but other forms, such as dried, candied, squash etc. can be prepared from ber. Stem, bark, root and leaves have some medicinal values. Leaves of ber are used as fodder in dry regions.

21.1 Introduction

Cashewnut or cashew is an export-oriented crop grown for its nuts, a true drupe. It is often referred to as ‘wonder nut’. It is highly delicious and nutritive. Its nutritional composition compares well with almond, hazelnut and walnut. The economic part is kernel which is a unique combination of fats (47%), protein (21%), carbohydrates, minerals and vitamins. Nutritionally it is equivalent to milk, egg and meat, it is good appetizer, an excellent nerve tonic, stimulant, body builder. India is the largest producer, processor and exporter; and second largest consumer in the world. Cashew is grown in Kerala, Karnataka, Goa and Maharashtra along the west coast and in Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Odisha and West Bengal along the east coast.

5.1 Introduction

Citrus is one of the most important fruit crops in the world. It is grown in the tropical and sub-tropical regions of the world. The top ten citrus producing countries are China, India, Nigeria, Brazil, Mexico, USA, Spain, Egypt, Italy and Argentina. The citrus industry in India is the third fruit industry after mango and banana. The important groups of crops in citrus are sweet orange, mandarins, limes, lemons, grape fruits and pummelo. The most important commercial Citrus species grown in India are mandarin (Citrus reticulata Blanco.), followed by sweet orange (Citrus sinensis (L.) Osbeck) and acid lime (Citrus aurantifolia Swingle). The major citrus producing states are Maharashtra, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Punjab.

19.1 Introduction

Coconut is valued most for its nut. The other components are coconut water, kernel, shell and husk. Coconut water is one of the most refreshing drinks. It is also known for its medicinal value. It increases blood circulation in kidneys, causes profuse diuresis and eliminates mineral poisoning. It is a good substitute for saline glucose under gastroenteritis conditions. The coconut has been regarded as ‘Kalpavriksha’ because all the parts of the palm is useful to mankind in one way or other. The dried kernels commonly called as copra is the richest source of vegetable fat (60-67 % oil). Coconut is major source of edible oil. India is the largest producer of coir and its product. The major coconut growing areas of the world are found in Asia, Oceania, West Indies, Central South America, East and West Africa. In India, coconut is commercially grown in Kerala, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Odisha and West Bengal.

23.1 Introduction

Coffee is the second important popular beverage for its aroma and mild stimulant action. Its dried beans are roasted, ground and brewed to make a stimulating and refreshing beverage. Use of coffee has evolved from original chewing of leaves and beans of the plant to relieve pain, hunger and fatigue to the present more sophisticated uses, like espresso and decaffeinated coffees. Its use was first discovered in Arabia around mid-15th century.

6.1 Introduction

Grapes are being grown commercially in the tropics. The region between the tropics of Cancer and Capricorn which was once considered to be unsuitable for growing quality grapes is producing good quality grapes. Tropical countries where grapes are grown are India, Indonesia, the Philippines, Thailand, Taiwan, South China, Australia, Brazil, Columbia, Ecuador, Mexico, Venezuela, West Indies, Kenya, Nigeria and Zimbabwe. In India, about 90% of grapes are being produced in the tropical states including Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu. There are three main commercial uses of grape, viz., table, raisin and wine.

8.1 Introduction

Guava is the fourth important fruit crop next to mango, banana and citrus. It is known as the ‘Apple of tropics’. It is very rich and cheap source of Vitamin C and also contains a fair amount of calcium. Important guava growing states are Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra. Allahabad district of Uttar Pradesh has the reputation of growing the best quality of guava fruits in the world. The importance of guava is due to the fact that it is the hardy fruit which can be grown in alkaline and poorly drained soil. Guava fruits are used for making jam, jelly and various culinary purposes. The fruit can be canned in sugar syrup.

10.1 Introduction

Litchi is a delicious fruit and generally consumed as a table fruit. It is one of the most popular fruits in India. It is also recognized as “Queen of Fruits”. It is a subtropical evergreen fruit crop. Its climatic requirements are highly specific. Thus, its commercial cultivation is restricted to only a few subtropical countries of the world. The major litchi producing countries are China, India, Taiwan, Thailand and Vietnam. In India, the important litchi growing states are Bihar, Jharkhand, West Bengal, Tripura, Uttar Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Chhattisgarh, Punjab and Himachal Pradesh. Litchi makes an excellent canned fruit and highly flavoured squash is prepared from inferior fruits.

3.1 Introduction

The Mango (Mangifera indica L.) belonging to the family Anacardiaceae in order Sapindales, is amongst the most important tropical fruits of the world. In India, it is also known as the ‘king of fruits’ owing to the delicious quality of the fruit rich in vitamins and minerals. Its long period of domestication is evident from its mention in the ancient Indian scriptures. In India, mango has been valued not only for religious consideration but also for its importance in the economic and cultural life of the society. Mango is rich in Vitamin A and C, flavonoids, carotenes, glucosides, sterols, terpenes, aromatic acids, essential oils, fatty acids and phenolics. It is a powerful nutritive fruit, containing most of the essential substances needed by the human body. The most important single factor limiting the production of mango fruit at the present time is the erratic fruiting habits of this species. Some cultivars produce a good crop in most years and a poor crop in other years, while still other cultivars produce only a few fruits each year. For many years new cultivars have been selected and grown on the basis of size, appearance, and dessert quality with very little attention given to their production capabilities. The improvement of mango needs to explore new recombinants primarily by means of exploiting the breeding methodologies. Diversity or heterogeneity is the main character desired for breeding either natural or manmade. It is required to have vast genetic pool to get new combinations of desired nature and developing new hybrids. It has been mentioned earlier that the development of mango in India is the result of selection from the amateur gardeners. Now, the scientists have developed certain hybrids of mango.

24.1 Introduction

In India, the commercial cultivation of oil palm started during 1970. Today about 16 countries of tropics cultivate oil palm. The palm oil has been safe and nutritious source of edible oil for human consumption for 1000 years. Palm oil and its liquid fraction palmolein is consumed worldwide as cooking oil. Malaysia, Indonesia, Nigeria and Columbia started to grow oil palm in a large scale during 1980. The commercial producing countries are Liberia, Peru, Angola, Senegal, Ghana, etc.

7.1 Introduction

Papaya is a fruit crop grown in kitchen garden, backyards of home and orchards. It is grown as a filler crop in orchard. India is the largest producer of papaya in the world. It is also cultivated in Brazil, Mexico, Australia, Hawaii, Malaysia, Taiwan, Peru, Florida, Gold Coast, South Africa and Bangladesh. In India, it is widely cultivated in Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Karnataka, Jharkhand and Madhya Pradesh. The ripe fruits of papaya are consumed throughout the tropics and sub-tropics. Fruits are also used in the preparation of jam, soft drinks, ice cream flavour, crystallized fruits and syrups. Unripe fruits are commonly used as vegetables. Papain is prepared from the latex of immature fruits. It is a proteolytic enzyme used for tendering of meat, preparation of chewing gum and cosmetics. The ripe fresh fruit is rich source of vitamin A, carbohydrates and minerals. The fruits are prescribed for piles, dyspepsia, liver, spleen and digestive disorders. Roots are used as nerve tonic. The plants flower five months after planting and fruits are ready five months after flowering. So, it has attracted attention of fruit growers to cultivate on a large scale in the country.

16.1 Introduction

Peach is one of the important fruits grown in warm temperate zones of the world. Fruits are rich in protein, sugar, minerals and vitamins. Peaches are highly valued as table fruit for their attractive colour and palatability. Canned peaches, dried frozen preserves, jams, nectar are principal processed products of peach. It is grown mainly in Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Punjab, Uttarakhand, Nilgiri hills, Jharkhand and North-Eastern States.

15.1 Introduction

Pear is one of the important fruit crops that belong to the family Rosaceae. In the world pear is cultivated in China, USA, Argentina, Italy, Turkey, Spain, India, South Africa, Japan, Belgium etc. It is grown under a wide variety of climatic regimes ranging from cold dry temperate hilly conditions to warm humid sub-tropical conditions on the plains of northern India. In India pear is widely cultivated in Punjab, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Uttar Pradesh, Uttarakhand etc.

9.1 Introduction

Pineapple is one of the most important commercial fruits of the world. It is good source of vitamin A, B and fairly rich in vitamin C, minerals like calcium, phosphorous and iron. Fresh fruit is used as dessert. Fruit is also used for juice, squash, jam, mixed jam and in canned form. Fruit core is used for preparing candy. Some cultivars of pineapple are used for extraction of fibre. The important pineapple growing states are Assam, West Bengal, Tripura, Kerala, Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Karnataka and Madhya Pradesh.

13.1 Introduction

Pomegranate (Punica granatum L.), an economically important fruit plant species, belongs to the family Punicaceae. It is an important fruit crop of arid and semiarid regions of the world and has been believed to be the symbol of fertility and abundance. Pomegranate is a highly remunerative crop for replacing subsistence farming and alleviating poverty. The plant is drought tolerant, winter hardy and can thrive well under desert condition. It is a good source of protein, carbohydrate, minerals, antioxidants, vitamins A, B and C, and has also been used in controlling diarrhoea, hyperacidity, tuberculosis, leprosy, abdominal pain and fever. Pomegranate juice contains antioxidants such as soluble polyphenols, tannins, anthocyanins and can be used in the treatment of cancer and chronic inflammation. It has enjoyed a reputation for its healthy dietetic and medicinal properties.

22.1 Introduction

Tea is the most important non-alcoholic beverage gaining further popularity as an important “health drink”. It is consumed as a morning drink by 2/3rd of world population. Tea was initially used as a medicine and subsequently as beverage and now has proven to be a potential raw material for pharmaceutical industry. Tea is mainly consumed in the form of ‘fermented tea’ or ‘black tea’, ‘non-fermented tea’ or ‘green tea’ and ‘semi-fermented tea’ or ‘oolong tea’. Green leaves are also used as vegetables such as ‘leppet tea’ in Burma and ‘meing tea’ in Thailand. Tea leaves have more than 700 chemical constituents among which flavonoids, amino acids, vitamins (C, E, K), caffeine and polysaccharides are important to human health. The stimulating effect of tea is due to caffeine (1.25-4.5%). Per cup value of caffeine in tea is three and half times less than that of coffee and is less harmful than coffee. Importantly, the vitamin C content in leaves is comparable to that of lemon.

18.1 Introduction

Among nut crops, ‘Walnut’ or ‘Akhrot’ is the most important crop. It has immense commercial importance even in the areas situated in remotes without having good market and transport infrastructure. Because of long storability, growers have opportunity to hold the produce at room temperature for two to three months easily and sell out at intended time. Walnut is rich in protein, fats and vitamins, especially vitamin B6 . The walnut kernel contains about 90% PUFA of which 26% is the Omega-3 fatty acid, alpha-linolenic acid. But the problem with this type of kernel is that higher the percentage of PUFA in it, the more is the chances of getting the oil oxidized and thereby reducing the shelf life of the walnut kernel.

2.1 Introduction

The different breeding strategies (methods) that can be employed for improvement of fruit crops include introduction, open pollinated selection, clonal selection, hybrid breeding, polyploidy breeding, mutation breeding, molecular breeding, in vitro breeding and transgenic breeding. Combining traditional approaches with biotechnological approaches will speed up the rate of genetic improvement. Thus, what is required is to adopt a coordinated approach involving breeders, biotechnologists, horticulturists, pathologists, entomologists and statistician for making the cultivation of fruit crops more scientific and more profitable and thereby contributing more to improving the health of the people in a sustainable manner.

I. FILL UPS

1. _____ is the process of bringing wild species under human management.
2. _____ is referred to as taking a genotype into new environments, where they were not being grown before.
3. Introduction of plants from a foreign country is called as _____.
4. Introduction from one state to another state is called as _____.
5. When the introduced variety is well suited to the new environment it is called as _____.

2.1. Multiple Choice Questions

1. The process of bringing a wild species under human management is referred to as ????.
   1. Selection
   2. Rejection
   3. Domestication
   4. None of the above
2. ?????was perhaps the first man to use artificial hybridization to develop several new fruit varieties.
   1. Dawrin
   2. Knight
   3. Beal
   4. Mendel
3. Plant breeding aims to ???????
   1. Improve yield only
   2. Disease resistant only
   3. Insect resistance only

The brinjal, eggplant or aubergine (French name) has originated in the Indian sub-continent and China (Thomson and Kelly, 1957, Purewall, 1957 and Martin and Rhodes, 1979). Brinjal is an important vegetable crop of the Far East, Bangladesh, India, China and the Philippines. Brinjal belongs to the family Solanaceae and is known under the botanical name Solanum melongena L. (2n = 24). There are 3 main botanical varieties under the species melongena(Chowdhury, 1976). The round or egg-shaped cultivars are grouped under var. esculenturn, the long slender types are included under var. serpentintumand the dwarf brinjal plants are put under var. depressum.

I. FILL UPS

1. Brinjal is rich in _____ and _____.
2. In brinjal, _____ is the common feature in case of style.
3. Stigma receptivity of brinjal is _____.
4. Pollen viability in brinjal is _____.
5. The isolation distance recommended for brinjal certified seed production is _____.

Bulb Crops

Bulb crops are cool season vegetables that are grown during the winter months in plains. They are mainly growing for its fleshy leaf bases or fleshy axillary buds or blanched stem and leaves. Major bulb crops that are widely cultivating in our country comprises of onion, garlic and leek. They possess a characteristic odour due to the presence of volatile oil, allyl propyl disulphide (onion) and diallyl disulphide (garlic). They are either seed propagated as in onion and leek or through cloves as in garlic or through bulblets in multiplier onion. Seed propagated bulb crops are annual for bulb production and biennial for seed production. Seed production of bulb crops can be undertaken in plains especially in the central part of the country and southern plains whereas, northern plains hold the problems of Stemphylium and purple blotch during the seed crop and subsequent lower seed yield makes northern plains unfit for seed production. But these areas can be utilized for seed production by following the delayed planting of seed crop and avoiding the climate favouring the diseases.

Onion (Allium cepa)

Onion is a popular vegetable grown for its pungent bulbs. Bulbs are consumed as raw vegetable, as cooked vegetable or in preserved forms. Onion is reported to be originated in Central Asia and Mediterranean region is considered as the secondary centre of origin. It is adapted to a wide range of climate and it is being cultivated in India in three seasons viz., kharif, late kharif and rabi. India is having the largest area under onion cultivation in the world. It is also contributing substantially towards the export of the value-added products from our country. White or yellow onions are commonly using for producing dehydrated products whereas, the red ones are more preferred for direct consumption.

Botany :The cabbage plant, Brassica oleracea, is an herbaceous annual or biennial vegetable in the family Cruciferae grown for its edible head. The head of the cabbage is round and forms on a short thick stem. The leaves are thick and alternating with wavy or lobed edges and the roots are are fibrous and shallow. The plant produces large yellow flowers. The densely leaved heads can range in size from 0.5 to 3.6 kg (1-8 lb) depending on variety. The plant is usually grown as an annual.

I. FILL UPS

1. Capsicum belongs to _____ family.
2. _____ active ingredient is present in capsicum.
3. Ideal day temperature for flowering is _____

Carrot (Daucus carota Stova condolle) is one of the most important and widely used root vegetable belonging to the family Umbelliferae. The seed production can be done during September – October in plains and in hills the sowing takes place in June and roots are replanted during the first week of October.

Method of seed production

Carrot is a cross-pollinated crop and self-pollination occurs to the extent of 0-5%. Crosspollination is mainly through insects. Seeds should be allowed to set by cross-pollination in isolation. Seed production is done by seed to seed and root to seed method. In seed to seed method, the matured roots are left to produce flowers and seeds in the place where seeds are sown initially. In root to seed method, roots at edible maturity should be uprooted and the roots of true to varietal characteristics should be selected and transplanted to the well prepared field after proper trimming of roots and shoots. This root to seed method is preferred for seed production in carrot since the root rot infection is high in seed to seed method of seed production.

The isolation distance maintained between the fields of other varieties and the fields of the same variety not conforming to varietal purity requirements for certification is 1000 metres for foundation and 800 metres for certified seed production. During mother root production an isolation of 5 metres should be followed.

Botany: Cashew belongs to the Family Aricardiaceae. A small evergreen tree native of tropical America from Mexico to Peru and Brazil but now cultivated largely in Malabar, Kerala, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh and to some extend in Maharashtra, Goa, Odisha and West Bengal

The commercial production is mainly confined to India, Mozambique, Tanzania, Kenya; Brazil, Philippines, Malaysia and Sri Lanka.Cashew is an important foreign earning crop of India, remarking second (29%) in the international trade of the nuts. It is a crop of marginal lands and can be grown under rainfed conditions.

Soil and climate: It grows up well in all soils. Red sandy loam is best suited. Plains as well as hill slopes upto 600 - 700 feet elevation are suitable for cultivation. Season: June - December. Propagation: Soft wood grafting, air layer and epicotyl grafting. Requirement of plants: 200 plants/ha. Preparation of field: Pits of 45 cm3 size are dug and filled up with a mixture of soil + 10 kg FYM + one kg neem cake and 100 g Methyl parathion 1.3 %.

I. FILL UPS

1. Castor seeds contain _____ % oil.
2. The castor is rich in which triglycerides _____.
3. _____is a toxin present in castor seed.
4. Castor is a _____ crop.

Botany

Cauliflower is highly cross pollinated crop due to self incompatibility. Flower is protogynous in nature. Stigma remains receptive 5 days before and 4 days after opening of the flower. The time taken from pollination to fertilization is 248 hours depending upon the temperature. The optimum temperature for fertilization and seed development is 12°C – 18°C. Bees are the major pollinators.

Method of seed production: There are two methods of seed production

1. in situ method (seed to seed method)
2. Transplanting method (Head to seed method)

For seed production, seed to seed method is recommended since the head to seed method in India has not been very successful. In seed to seed method (In situ method) the crop is allowed to over winter and produce seed in the original position, where they are first planted in the seedling stage.

Since historical times, Indian spices have been contributed not only to the country’s wealth and prosperity but also to the subcontinent itself as a whole. Spices precisely witnessed many wars, bloodshed, armoury alongwith the glowing accounts and adventurous voyage by Pliny, Ptolemy, Marco Polo, Vasco da Gamma and other travelers. The Southern parts of India, especially the Malabar Coast, with its abundance of the World’s best pepper, cinnamon and ginger was enormously creating impact of a plethora of spices which attracted the foreign trade and continue even today by creating a unique brand value globally. In the past, invaders travelled to India by overcoming many odds and barriers with the prime focus on capturing spice trade and dominating the trade scenario of those days throughout the world. As a result, gradually Indian spices travelled far and wide to traditional destinations by providing flavor, aroma, pungency, taste and colour to a variety of foods and beverages.

It was the end of 18^th century, from when scientific research began on the idea of origin of cultivated plants. The pioneers of this field were Darwin, Alphonse de Candolle, N.I Vavilov and many more. Charles Darwin wrote his famous book ‘On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection’, or the ‘Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life’ published on 24^th November 1859. According to him, cultivated plants may have originated from its wild form after a series of intense modifications. Afterwards, a Swiss botanist Alphonse de Candolle studied 247 cultivated plant species and documented his work in the book “Origin of cultivated plants” in 1886. Later, Vavilov first identified the Centres of origin. He could determine the origin of plants by analyzing the pattern of variation and proposed that, crop plants have been evolved from their wild species in the geographic region of the greatest genetic diversity of that particular plant. That area is known as the primary centres of origin of the particular plant. But, some crop species were found to show substantial genetic diversity even though they did not originate there. Such areas are known as secondary centres of origin for that particular species.

Need for certification

Forest restoration and reforestation experts know the effect the right seed source can have on the long-term economic and ecological success of tree planting efforts. However, unlike stock quality (such as size and health), genetic quality (seed source) cannot be observed by the consumer at the time of stock purchase. Where once the provincial government controlled the source of seed and its destination through the provincial nursery system, seed supply is now in the private sector, and the source is unknown or a matter of trust. Tree planting in general needs help, and the wrong seed source is only one of the many reasons that your planting project may not be successful. Besides, the identity of the source will be tracked throughout the chain of custody until it is presented, as a labeled, certified product to the consumer. The seed source may be from a single parent tree or preferably from a large healthy stand of trees. But if seed is bulked from many locations, the label on the resulting seedlings can only indicate the greater area. For example if a nursery bulked its seed from many counties across a specific place, they can only certify and market that crop as? specific place? not as one from a specific county that may have been a source for the seed. For this reason we will have to encourage collectors and growers to bulk only by tree seed zones to promote certification program for the context of successful tree planting.

13.1 Challenges in the technology transfer process
Technology transfer (TT) is more complex and involves the complex interrelationships between universities, research institutes, the private sector, the state, and society. Though TT is all about translating research findings into purposeful solutions that can support the economy and society, it is not a linear process. The challenges can be described as legal, institutional, cultural, financial, policy, and human resource. All this is accompanied by bottlenecks that inhibit or decelerate the diffusion of promising technologies.
13.1.1 Legal and intellectual property challenges
The vital component of technology transfer is the proper management of intellectual property (IP), which is often the most challenging aspect.
• Ambiguities in IP ownership: During multi-institutional or shared funder research, ownership is quite controversial. As an example, when a government lab and a university collaborate on the project, there is ambiguity as to who would have the ultimate licensing authority over the technology: the university, the lab, or the funding agency. This kind of fight hinders commercialisation and scares off industry partners.
• Lengthy patent filing and prosecution timelines: In several jurisdictions, the filings, examination, and granting of a patent may take between three and five years or more. Such delay is not compatible with the rapid cycle of invention in other fields such as ICT or biotechnology, where patent claims may become invalid before they are granted.
• High costs of IP protection: International direct patenting, like under the Patent Cooperation Treaty (PCT), is costly and involves legal services, fees, and upkeep costs. These costs are excessively high, which cannot be easily compensated by universities and startups, and where technologies are not secured or limited to local markets.

I. FILL UPS

1. Ovule moisture content at the time of fertilization is approximately _____.
2. After sexual fusion, the developing seeds begin to _____ in weight as a result of nutrient accumulation.
3. _____ is the precursor substrate for starch formation in a seed.
4. In cereals, the walls of the dead cells of the mature starchy endosperm are composed of _____ and _____.
5. In coffee and ivory nut seeds _____ is deposited in the cell wall.
6. In cereal seeds, proteins are accumulated in the _____ layer.

I. FILL UPS

1. The major storage organ for cereals is _____ .
2. The major storage organ for legumes is _____.
3. The major storage organ in pine is _____.
4. The average protein percent present in soybean is _____.
5. The average oil percent present in oilpalm is _____.

The chemical composition of seeds is basically determined by genetic factors and varies among different species and seed parts (Table 1). However, it is influenced by environmental and cultural practices.

Chilli or Pepper (Capsicum Sps.) originated in South America and spread into the New World tropics before subsequent introduction to Asia and Africa. Chillies are now widely grown throughout the tropics, sub-tropics and warmer temperature region of the world. The genus Capsicum is a member of the family Solanaceae.

I. FILL UPS

1. Dehydrated green chilli is a good source of _____.
2. Isolation distance adopted for chilli for foundation seed production is _____.
3. Seed rate of chilli is _____.
4. Spacing generally adopted for chillies are _____.

Botany :Annual Chrysanthemum is a winter annual that can be grown either as pot plants or in groups as bed plants for various ornamental purposes. There are two types of annual Chyrsanthemums: Chrysanthemum Segetum and C.coronarium. Major varieties of Chrysanthemum segetum L. are Morning Star, Evening Star, Eastern Star, Blanca, Eldorado, Gloria, Isabel, Romeo, and yellow Stone while popular cultivars of C. coronarium L. include Nivea, Oreon, Albo, Golden Crown, Luteum, Tom Thumb Golden Gem, Tom Thumb-Primrose Gem and Tetra Comet. In addition to this, there is another type of annual Chrysanthemum, i.e. C. carinatum. Popular varieties of C. carinatum S. are Merry, Atrococcineum, Burridgeanum, Eclipse, Flammenspiel, John Bright and Northern Star.

Propagation

Annual Chrysanthemums can be propagated by seeds. Their sowing time depends upon climate. It varies in different parts of India. In the Northern plains, winter season annual Chrysanthemums are sown during September–October. The seeds are sown in nursery beds, earthen pots, seed pans or wooden seed trays. The seed compost should consist of one part each of garden soil, coarse sand, farmyard manure and leaf-mould. For preparing the nursery beds, the soil should be dug up thoroughly and sufficient farmyard manure, should be mixed in soil. Raised nursery beds of convenient size (normally 60cm wide and 15cm high) should be prepared. If soil is heavy, some quantity of sand may be added. It is better if the soil of nursery bed or earthen pots is sterilized with 2% formalin. For this, soil is drenched with formalin solution and is covered with polythene sheet for 45hr. Afterwards, the polythene is removed and soil is dried before sowing the seeds.