eChapters

Seed bearing plants

Seed-bearing plants are broadly categorized in two major types: the gymnosperms and the angiosperms which are together grouped in Division Spermatophyta in the older system of classification for the plant kingdom. Consequently, seed plants are presently classified into multiple phyla. Still, for the purpose of learning basic concepts, it is convenient to group plants informally as spermatophytes (sperm "seed" + phyte "plant"). The spermatophytes are the most complex and evolutionarily advanced plants. Unlike ferns and bryophytes which reproduce and disperse by unicellular spores, spermatophytes reproduce and disperse by means of multi-cellular seeds which consist a protective seed coat surrounding an embryonic sporophyte and its food supply. This group of seed plants exhibits an alternation of generations in which the sporophyte is dominant. Furthermore, the gametophyte is microscopic and heterosporous with the latter term meaning that these seed plants produce two types of spores: microspores and megaspores that give rise to separate male gametophytes (micro-gametophytes) and female gametophytes (mega-gametophytes) respectively. The megaspore is never released from the sporangium; thus, the female gametophyte develops within the sporangium while being still attached to the sporophyte.

Seed dormancy

Plants evolve many mechanisms that ensure their survival. For instance, some species produce prodigious number of seeds so that even if only a small proportion germinate and grow, some seedlings will survive. Alternately, dormancy can be defined as: a seed characteristic, the degree of which defines what conditions should be met to make the seed germinate. This definition may be more useful in understanding dormancy because it suggests that dormancy is variable, rather than constant, which is the situation that we generally encounter in the native populations of many species. The staggering of germination (dormancy) is an advantage for seeds that mature in late summer to early fall, since immediate germination would leave vulnerable seedlings exposed to harsh winter conditions.

Potato, the third most important food crop in the world after rice and wheat is becoming the main source of food and income in developing countries. India stands second in production and area of potato in world after China leaving behind the Russian Federation. In India, potato is an important component in cereal and vegetable-based cropping systems for its ability to produce high dry matter/ha in short duration and high yield compared to cereals. It is grown as mixed crop, intercrop, relay or sequential crop along with other vegetables, cereals and cash crops.

Potato is originated in South America in the high Andean hills and towards the end of 16th century it was first introduced into Europe by Spanish conquerors. In the early 17th century, it was brought to India by British missionaries or Portuguese traders. Thus, potato developed as a temperate crop and was later distributed throughout the world. Cultivated potato consists of two sub species, Solanum tuberosm ssp. andigena and S. tuberosum ssp tuberosum. Subspecies andigena is the primitive form which is adapted to shorter day length and high altitudes of mountains (above 2000). The presently cultivating tuberosum subspecies is adapted to long or short day condition of tropical regions and lower altitudes (500-200m above MSL) and is believed to be evolved from andigena types through selection.

Morphology and Floral Biology

Potato is herbaceous in nature with erect to prostrate stem. Stem is variably coloured from green, purple or mottled green or purple. Leaves are pinnate which ends in single terminal leaflet. Stolon arise from the portion of the plant below the ground. The stolon bears rudimentary leaves and tip is hook shaped. The sub apical portion at the tip of stolon enlarges to produce tubers. Hence, potato tubers are the modification of underground stem with shortened axis and poorly developed eyes. The leaf scar with a subtended lateral bud having underdeveloped internodes is referred to as the eye of the tuber. Potato is a long day plant. Moderate humidity and long day condition favours flowering. Hence flowering and fruit set is observed in hilly tracts. Inflorescence is produced terminally and is usually cymose. Flowers are bisexual, actinomorphic, and hypogynous with 5 calyx, 5 corolla and 5 stamens. The colour of corolla varies from white, pink, lilac, blue and purple. Pollen shedding is through the pores at the tip of the anthers. Mature fruit is a berry. Self-incompatibility is observed in diploid species and tetraploids are self-compatible.

PLANT EXPLORATION AND GERMPLASM COLLECTION OF PLANT GENETIC RESOURCES

Plant exploration and collection activities have been undertaken for a wide range of needs - by naturalists, travelers and plant hunters over the past several centuries in the quest for new and better economic plants in the southeast Asian region, ornamentals in the Himalayas and many others; by taxonomists for working out plant diversity and delineating phyto- geographic differences, and providing a basis for pinpointing areas with high species diversity and changes over time; world-wide collection, augmentation and characterization of crop plant diversity by Vavilov and co-workers (1926) for understanding the patterns of crop plant diversity and delineating centres of diversity; search for wild forms of species, and wild relatives of crop plants for working out primary centres of origin and crop genepools; biosystematic study, survey and in situ study and collection in protected areas for determining patterns of diversity build-up in crop and wild species. Concept of centres of origin of crop plants, importance of the wild genepool of crops, dependence on wild plants as a source of edible and otherwise useful species ensuing from these efforts provide the basis for systematic exploration and collection of plant genetic resources.

Intellectual property: It can be defined as creations of intellectual brain which has value, utility/application in the society and can be traded in commerce for economic benefits.

Significance of Intellectual Property: The significance of protection of Intellectual Property has been realized for wealth and value creation in a knowledge-based economy. The agricultural scientists are comparatively little aware of IPR issues because their primary mandate has always been the free delivery of technology to the end users particularly the farmers. After the implementation of TRIPS Agreement during 1995, the worldwide focus of scientists and planners was shifted on the development of time appropriate technologies, protection of inventions/ technologies and real time technology transfer through licensing for industrial and agricultural growth leading to overall economic development. Under the changing scenario of global trade, where national governments are entering into bilateral agreements for tackling IPR issues to promote trade, agricultural scientists must also look for managing their intellectual properties in tune with the existing IP legislation of the country.

INTRODUCTION

Genetic engineering (GE) and genetically modified organisms (GMOs) provide powerful tools for sustainable development in agriculture, healthcare and many other industries. GMOs are those which were genetically engineered in a laboratory by incorporating a small foreign DNA fragment carrying a gene of interest into the native DNA of the organism. The foreign gene is attached with the necessary regulatory elements to help its expression in the new genetic environment. Genetically modified (GM) crops currently account for some 16 percent of the world’s land planted with soybean, maize, cotton and canola. The global demand for food is increasing because of the growing world population and decreasing arable land. At the same time food and agricultural systems have to respond to several changes such as increasing international competition, globalization and rising consumer demands for improved food quality, safety, health enhancement and convenience. Modern biotechnology involving the use of rDNA technology/genetic engineering has emerged as a powerful tool with many potential application for improving the quantity and quality of food supply. Foods derived from genetically modified crops, commonly referred to as genetically modified food and food ingredients have already become available worldwide with aim of enhancing productivity, decreasing the use of certain agricultural chemicals, modifying the inherent properties of crops, improving the nutritional value or even increasing shelf life. Results of DNA modification may not be limited only to the particular characteristics of the replaced gene. It is therefore important to ensure that when these organisms are released into nature they do not harm the environment or human health [EFSA, 2006]. Such concerns have led to broader interests in the theme of risk assessment in the release of GMOs. A cautious approach is necessary to assess environmental risks which may occur due to introduction of recombinant organisms in the natural environment [Johnson et al., 2007].

Introduction

Stored-product insects are serious pests of dried, stored, durable agricultural commodities and of many value-added food products and non-food derivatives of agricultural products worldwide. Various estimates on post harvest losses across the country revealed that there is loss of 2–12 per cent during storage exclusively by insects. Almost all the insect species may destroy 10.0 -15.0 per cent of grain and contaminate the rest with undesirable odour. The major loss is done by two internal feeders i.e. rice weevil and grain borer, which are major pests of rice, wheat and millets (Champ and Dyte, 1977). They also help in transportation of fungi (Sinha and Sinha, 1990). The losses during storage are quantity losses and quality losses. Quantity losses occur when insects, rodents, mites, birds and microorganisms, consume the grain. Infestation causes reduction in seed germination, increase in moisture, free fatty acid levels and decrease in pH and protein contents etc. resulting in total quality loss. Quality losses affect the economic value of the food grains fetching low prices to farmers (Das et al., 2013).

Abstract

Insect pests, fungi, bacteria and other injuries are found in all types of environment and affect the growth, production and survival of both plants and animal species in one way or other. Similarly a large number of insects belonging to different orders, families and genera feed on pods and seeds in natural/ during storage and cause injuries. Regeneration failure in several broad leaved and conifers in India and other countries by heavy insect attack in the natural stands at the time of inflorescence and seed formation and on the ground after seed shedding causes heavy loss to number of afforestation programmes. Several methods like chemical, cultural, natural and biological are available for reduction in loss caused to seeds by insects. Generally, earlier the control measure, the smaller the destruction. Forest seeds can be stored safely by taking some precautions before their final storage, viz. inspection of the seeds for their moisture content, visual examination of cleaning method, scanning through soft X-ray technique, thermotherapy or treatments with chemicals, etc. The present chapter has covered review regarding damage caused to seeds by different insect pests and their management options.

Need to know Physiological maturity (PM), Harvestable maturity (HM) and harvesting method

·    If these factors are considered, the harvest produce will have the maximum seed quality characters in terms of germination, vigour and storability.

 The maturity is of two types depending on the purpose. If the crop is for grain production it is enough to harvest the crop during harvestable maturity. But when the crop is meant for seed purpose it is advisable to harvest the crop during physiological maturity.

Seed Storage is an essential process during seed production programme. The purpose of seed storage is to preserve planting stocks from one season to next planting season.Seed storage starts from the moment of maturity and extend until its planting, in the next season.
 
PRINCIPLES OF STORAGE

Primary aim of storage is simply to prevent deterioration of quality seed. The management objective during the storage period is to reduce metabolic activity to such a low level that the seed is sufficiently stable with minimal deterioration. The two alternative methods are

1.    Reduction of moisture content to a safe level and cooling of the seed.
2.    Modification of atmospheric condition of the storage system.

Types of storage

There are four types

1.    Storage of commercial,  truthfully labelled and certified seed.

2.    Storage of carry-over seeds.

3.    Storage of foundation seed stocks and enforcement seed samples.

4.    Storage for germplasm seeds.

Successful onion cultivation begins with vigorous, disease-free seedlings and their timely establishment in the field. Seed quality, nursery-bed preparation, growing medium, nutrition, irrigation, weed control and protection against pests and diseases determine seedling performance. This chapter explains conventional and modern nursery-management practices, including raised beds, plug trays, protected structures, soilless media, fertigation and climate-controlled production. It also discusses seedling selection, hardening, transplanting age, spacing and field establishment. Mechanized, robotic and precision transplanting systems are examined as solutions to labour shortages and uneven planting. Climate-resilient nurseries, sensors and automation can further improve transplant survival, resource efficiency, uniformity, productivity and sustainability.

Introduction

Synthetic seeds are defined as artificially encapsulated somatic embryos, shoot buds, cell aggregates, or any other tissue that can be used for sowing as a seed and that possess the ability to convert into a plant under in vitro or ex vitro conditions and retained its potentiality also after storage (Capuano et al., 1998). In other words, synthetic or artificial seeds defined as somatic embryos engineered seed used in the commercial propagation of plants (Gray and Purohit, 1991; Redenbaugh, 1993).

Artificial seeds have great potential for large scale production of plants at low cost as an alternative to true seeds (Roy and Mandal, 2008). An artificial seed is often described as a novel analogue to true seed consisting of a somatic embryo surrounded by an artificial coat which is at most equivalent to an immature zygotic embryo, possibly at post-heart stage or early cotyledonary stage (Bekheet, 2006). There are various advantages of artificial seeds such as better and clonal plants could be propagated similar to seeds, preservation of rare plant species extending biodiversity could be realized, and more consistent and synchronized harvesting of important agricultural crops would become a reality, among many other possibilities (Khor and Loh, 2005). In addition, ease of handling, potential long-term storage and low cost of production and subsequent propagation are other benefits (Bekheet, 2006).

Molecular markers may be a short DNA sequence that flanks base pairs like SNP, a Single Nucleotude Polymorphism, small fragment or SSR Single Sequence Repeat or an extended site as in the case of microsatellites. Schematic representation of the SSR assay is shown in Fig. 1. Genetic markers have to be easily identified, linked to a specific locus and polymorphic. Molecular markers are subdivided into codominant monolocus and polyallelic markers and the second group contains dominant, polyallelic and biallelic markers. 

Processing extends onion availability and transforms perishable bulbs into stable, marketable products such as dehydrated flakes, powder, paste and pickles. Onion is also rich in phenolic acids, flavonols, anthocyanins and organosulphur compounds associated with antioxidant, antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory and cardioprotective properties. This chapter explains processing operations, quality preservation and the commercial importance of value-added onion products. It also addresses the large quantities of peels, outer scales and trimmings generated during processing. These residues contain quercetin, polyphenols, dietary fibre and other useful compounds that can be recovered for functional foods, nutraceuticals, natural antioxidants, biofuels and biodegradable materials, supporting waste reduction and a circular bioeconomy.

Conventional fertilizers often exhibit low nutrient-use efficiency, resulting in nutrient losses, soil degradation, water contamination and unnecessary production costs. Nano-fertilizers offer controlled and targeted nutrient delivery through formulations engineered at the nanoscale. Their high surface-area-to-volume ratio can improve nutrient availability, plant uptake, growth, bulb quality and storage performance while reducing conventional fertilizer requirements. This chapter explains the nature, modes of action and potential benefits of nano-fertilizers in onion production. It also considers nano-biofertilizers, smart nutrient-delivery systems and nano-sensors. Particular attention is given to manufacturing cost, nanotoxicity, effects on soil microorganisms, farmer accessibility and the need for standardized safety and regulatory frameworks.

Efficient nutrient and water management is essential for achieving high onion productivity without degrading soil and water resources. Excessive fertilizer use, poor irrigation practices, groundwater depletion, nutrient imbalance and climate variability can reduce input efficiency and environmental sustainability. This chapter presents soil testing, integrated nutrient management, site-specific nutrient application, microbial interventions, residue management, nanotechnology and digital soil mapping. It also covers drip and sprinkler irrigation, scheduling, fertigation, mulching, rainwater harvesting and other water-conservation practices. Technologies such as SPAD meters, GreenSeeker, GPS, GIS, drones, remote sensing, sensors, artificial intelligence and IoT systems facilitate real-time monitoring, need-based application and climate-smart management of agricultural resources.

Diseases of plants are produced by a variety of organisms from plant and animal kingdoms viz., fungi, bacteria, viruses, nematodes and insects. The diseases reduce total biomass (dry matter) production and consequently yield of the crop by general stunting, damage to the leaf tissues, fruits and seeds or by killing the plants. The degree of damage would depend upon the intensity of infection but both need not be proportional. One serious effect of disease is the disappearance from cultivation of otherwise excellent but susceptible varieties.

Vegetable crops have been found to be highly susceptible to biotic stresses from the disease causing microorganisms and insects-pests. The ability of pathogen and insect-pests to attack and proliferate in the host plant is highly specific. There are wide differences in the host plants in response to the attack by pathogens and insects. Although control of the diseases and insects by the use of chemicals is possible to certain extent but indiscriminate use of fungicides or insecticides over the crop has several disadvantages. Besides increasing cost involved in chemical control, residual toxicity of the chemicals such as fungicides, antibiotics and insecticides in food chain and development of resistance against pathogens and insect-pests to different chemicals are serious problems.

Genetic improvement of host plants conferring resistance to diseases and insect-pests is considered to be the best approach in the management of diseases and insect-pests, and this is more particularly true in case of vegetable crops. Indiscriminate use of chemicals in the vegetable sector has led to health hazard. This has resulted in switching towards organic vegetables. However, cost of production of organic vegetables naturally will not permit the common people to consume these products. Therefore, the best option is to induce resistance in the host varieties. The resistant varieties could in turn be an important component in the organic vegetable farming, thereby reducing cost of production to certain extent.

Incentives are a powerful stimulus to transfer of technology. They can encourage researchers to get their results to market, a new career path for many of them. They can create a culture that attracts and retains entrepreneurial staff, scientists, students and technology transfer professionals (TTPs) that view the university as a career path and a vehicle for making a contribution to society. Working in a pro-entrepreneurship team of colleagues can also lead to getting people to think in terms of making a connection between their work and its application. Incentives can be short-term or long-term in nature, and can be tailored to individual or collective requirements. As it is likely to be challenging for universities to design incentives that cater to every researcher’s or TTP’s desire, they can design incentive programs to cater to various aspects of human. Nature.
12.1 Why incentives matter in this ecosystem
Incentives can be either financial and non-financial. These are needed to ensure that researchers and TTPs remain motivated, aligned with institutional goals, and committed to the long-term process of technology transfer and commercialization. Incentive programs serve several important purposes:
• Motivation: Incentives energize individuals to pursue innovation and commercialization, often over long- and uncertain-time horizons.
• Retention: By offering recognition, rewards, and career advancement opportunities, institutions can retain high-performing researchers and skilled TTPs.
• Alignment: Well-designed incentives ensure that the personal goals of stakeholders align with institutional and societal objectives.

What is seed?

“A seed is an embryo, a living organism securely fixed in the supporting or the food storage tissue.”

A true seed is defined as “Structurally a true seed is a fertilized matured ovule, consisting of an embryonic plant, a store of food and a protective seed coat, a store of food consists of cotyledons and endosperm”. In broad sense, “seed is a material which is used for planting or regeneration purpose”. Scientifically, “seed is a fertilized matured ovule together covered with seed coat is called seed” or “it is a propagating material i.e., part of agriculture, sericulture, silviculture and horticultural plants used for sowing or planting purpose”.

The business of Seed Technology is to protect this biological entity and look after its ‘welfare’, while the focus of Food Technology is on the second component – the supporting tissue.

The basic feature of the Pre-British India was a village, which was economically a water-tight compartment fulfilling the three basic functions of economy, i.e., production, distribution and consumption, within the village community without outside world dependence, except the salt and kerosene. Every village was a self-sufficient unit with dependence on agriculture carried out by community people of different castes having the occupational specialization with interdependence, viz. jajmani system and alike.

Developments in the means of communications and the opening of Suez Canal in 1869 introduced fundamental and far-reaching changes in the social system and economic life of Indians by transforming self-sufficient village economy to new modes and means based on competition, market and price mechanism. This change was deliberated by Britishers for meeting the requirement of raw material and the diversification to tea, jute and indigo took place. Cotton also got importance but agriculture did not find place for vegetables. Famines were very common and crop production depended on monsoon rains to the large extent. Britishers developed cotton, jute and mineral trade for their vested interests.

Britishers emphasized the development of railways for better mobility of their troops, commercial crop produce and minerals but the Report of Famine Commission 1901 bitterly criticized the Government for the step-motherly treatment given to irrigation facilities as compared to railways. The irrigation policy of the Government in 19th century was determined purely from concerns for adequate returns on investment and profit was of Rs. 81 lakhs after paying 4% interest on amount invested on irrigation development in 1896-97. Irrigation Commission was established and a sum of Rs. 42 crore was spent on irrigation by 1911. By 1930, about 30 million acres were brought under canal irrigation, which was far larger than the irrigated area in any other country of the world. Even in the USA, the area under canal irrigation was two-third that of India. Vegetables cultivation did not find place in Indian agriculture and also in diet of villagers. Their cultivation remained restricted to the periphery of the urban centres for meeting the demand of upper class elites only.