eChapters

Abstract

In afforestation and reforestation programs, seed has become a valuable commodity and its collection, identification, handling, processing, testing, storage and certification requires prudent planning. The research and development in seed science and technology have made significant progress in recent years. The quality of seed has been the subject of increasing interest among Forest Managers and the Scientists. Not every seed is suitable for sowing. Sometimes, the seeds do not develop into normal plants or the plants produced do not produce the expected harvest. This manuscript reviews, the progress made to-date in the forest tree seed germination and highlights future line of action.

3.1 Introduction

The Mango (Mangifera indica L.) belonging to the family Anacardiaceae in order Sapindales, is amongst the most important tropical fruits of the world. In India, it is also known as the ‘king of fruits’ owing to the delicious quality of the fruit rich in vitamins and minerals. Its long period of domestication is evident from its mention in the ancient Indian scriptures. In India, mango has been valued not only for religious consideration but also for its importance in the economic and cultural life of the society. Mango is rich in Vitamin A and C, flavonoids, carotenes, glucosides, sterols, terpenes, aromatic acids, essential oils, fatty acids and phenolics. It is a powerful nutritive fruit, containing most of the essential substances needed by the human body. The most important single factor limiting the production of mango fruit at the present time is the erratic fruiting habits of this species. Some cultivars produce a good crop in most years and a poor crop in other years, while still other cultivars produce only a few fruits each year. For many years new cultivars have been selected and grown on the basis of size, appearance, and dessert quality with very little attention given to their production capabilities. The improvement of mango needs to explore new recombinants primarily by means of exploiting the breeding methodologies. Diversity or heterogeneity is the main character desired for breeding either natural or manmade. It is required to have vast genetic pool to get new combinations of desired nature and developing new hybrids. It has been mentioned earlier that the development of mango in India is the result of selection from the amateur gardeners. Now, the scientists have developed certain hybrids of mango.

12.1. INTRODUCTION

Sorghum [Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench] is an important food/feed/fodder crop in more than 90 countries across the world and it is one of the cheapest sources of energy and micronutrients (Reddy et al., 2009; Ashok Kumar et al., 2011). Considerable efforts have been made to improve sorghum productivity through genetic enhancement and crop production and protection research all over the globe. Sorghum being an often cross-pollinated crop with cross pollination up to 2-15% depending on genotype and environment (House 1985), initially, pure-lines were the target products although phenomenon of heterosis was demonstrated in sorghum as early as in 1927 (Conner and Karper, 1927). Predominant self-pollinating nature of sorghum with tiny florets with single seed per emasculation and pollination prevented commercial exploitation of heterosis for commercial sorghum production. However, the discovery of a stable and heritable cytoplasmic-nuclear male-sterility (CMS) mechanism (Stephens and Holland, 1954), enabling large-scale, economic hybrid seed production gave a fillip to the exploitation of heterosis since early 1960s. The first commercial sorghum hybrid CSH 1 was released in 1964 in India. Using CMS mechanism, large number of commercial hybrids have been developed and released/marketed for commercial cultivation in all sorghum growing regions with strong Indian National Agricultural Research Systems (NARS).

13.1. INTRODUCTION

Pearl millet crop has a wide adaptability to local environments. It is hardy and can be grown in areas which are very hot and dry and on soils too poor for sorghum. Pearl millet is considered more efficient in utilization of soil moisture and has a higher level of heat tolerance than even sorghum and maize. It is adapted to warm and dry climate but most of the area under the crop is in drought- prone areas of the world. In these areas, pearl millet is usually grown with limited inputs, sparse rainfall, low soil fertility, and also face disease and pest problems, with correspondingly poor yields.
 
The low average yields are primarily a result of the hot, dry conditions where pearl millet is mostly grown, rather than pearl millet plant’s capability. Pearl millet hybrids grown under better conditions yield 3000 to 4000 kg/ha compared to 300 to 800 kg/ha when moisture and soil fertility become limiting factors. A majority of the subsistence farmers who typically cultivate this crop are unable to take advantage of high yield potential because they have limited options for improving their management practices. Pearl millet production can be increased through growing varieties/hybrids with improved tolerance to drought, diseases and responding to higher rates of fertilizer applications.

A bill to provide for regulating the quality of seeds for sale, import and export and to facilitate production and supply of seeds of quality and for matters connected therewith or incidental thereto. Be it enacted by Parliament in the Fifty-Fifth Year of the Republic of India as follows

5.1 Technology readiness levels- Introduction
Technology readiness levels (TRLs) is measurement of the maturity level of a particular technology. These are based on a scale from 1 to 9, with 9 being the most mature technology. It is a map that shows whether a given technology is in a conceptual state or can be used in real-world applications and ensures innovations are thoroughly tested before being applied on a large scale. The TRL scale uses a set of questions designed to measure progress of a technology toward maturity. They help in reducing risks and improving efficiency. TRLs were initially designed in the 1970s for use by NASA to assess how prepared a technology was for space missions. Technology for space travel is always extremely sophisticated and with a high degree of risk. NASA required a system to assess systematically whether or not a new technology was ready to implement. By breaking down development into different levels, NASA was able to provide informed decisions on which innovations were ready to incorporate (figure 12). In due course, TRL proved to be so effective that other industries began to use it. Other entities like the European Space Agency (ESA), U.S. Department of Defense (DoD), BIRAC, DRDO and many other agencies have taken , to using TRL to guide R&D strategies. TRL helps in simplifying development, decreasing risks, and maximizing resource utilization.

Potato is an important crop of the world and grown in almost all the states in India. Apart from India, potato is grown in more than 100 countries but the intensity of cultivation varies considerably. For example in the Netherlands 19.6% of the total arable land is cultivated with potatoes. The figures for Germany, Peru and USA are 10.1%, 5.6% and less than 1% respectively. India ranks fourth in area (1.29 m ha) and third in production (25.23 m ton) in the world. The productivity of potato depends mainly on the quality and quantity of planting materials and the agronomic management practices adopted. Most of developing countries including India experience release of high yielding varieties, development of adequate agronomic and pest control measures but the gap between supply and demand of good quality adequate quantity seed has to be the major constraint in increasing its productivity. 

Introduction

Development of improved crop varieties is vital for sustained increase in agriculture production and productivity. Timely supply of quality seed is equally significant since the contribution of quality seed alone is estimated to be 15-20 per cent to total crop production. Seed quality attains more significance in view of emerging biotic and abiotic stresses, issues related to quality and phytosanitary measures, competition in domestic and international markets and emerging food needs. Measures of seed legislation with respect to quantity and quality were initiated in the country by establishment of National Seed Corporation during 1963 under Ministry of Agriculture. The seed sector in India during the period was dominated by the Public sector. The National Seed Corporation was the Central Body to produce seeds of superior dwarf varieties in rice, wheat, and superior hybrids in maize, pearl millet and sorghum. This was followed by various seed legislations enacted by Government of India. Further, AICRP-NSP (Crops), popularly known as National Seed Project was launched during 1979-80. The NSP-Project came into operation in three major phases and continues to produce breeder seed to cater the needs of the Indian farmers. The project resulted in achieving breeder seed production surpassing the indents in all major crops. The seed programme of the country was further strengthened with NSP II (World Bank) Project starting in 1989-90, which not only supported the ICAR and SAUs, but also Department of Agriculture, Seeds Corporations, Seed Certification Agencies and Private Seed Industries to a great extent in production, processing and in providing quality seeds to the country.

10.2. Breeding Objectives 10.2.1. Tomato • To develop early , high yielding and consumer preference varieties / hybrids. • Large round fruit with adequate firmness and shelf-life, uniform fruit sizes shape, red colour and freedom from external blemishes or abnormalities for fresh market. • Large fruit size, high fruit quality and continuous production for home garden tomatoes. • Deep, uniformly red coloured tomatoes , pH below 4.4, high total soluble solid (4.5-7) and high alcohol solids (AIS) in processing tomatoes. • To evolve varieties / hybrid resistant to diseases like fusarium wilt, verticillum wilt, late blight, early blight, septoria leaf spot, anthracnose, bacterial wilt, bacterial canker and tomato leaf curl virus. • To develop varieties/ hybrids resistant to root-knot nematodes. • To breed varieties/ hybrids suitable for abiotic stresses like low Day (K10o C) and high temperatures (day 35+2o C) excess and moisture deficient, salt etc. • To develop varieties/ hybrids for prolonged storage and transportation

Vegetables have always been looked upon as an essential part of diet and are necessary for human health and well-being. Vegetables supply many kinds of nutrients, e.g., carbohydrates, proteins, minerals, vitamins, fibers, phytochemicals, etc. and also add flavour, colour and crispness to foodstuffs. For developing modern day vegetables, breeders have utilized an understanding of genetic principles and applied them for the improvement of these crops. They often make crosses (hybridization) between a crop plant and a related or wild species (a wide cross) enabling valuable genes to be used for genetic improvement of the crops. Over the last few decades, molecular breeding is supplementing plant breeder’s efforts for accelerated genetic enhancement bringing about a revolution in this area. This approach demands efficient procedures for the routine introduction of foreign DNA into plant genomes and utilizing them for the production of novel types of vegetable. In this chapter, attempts have been made to review most of the available molecular breeding techniques, which can routinely be employed in various aspects of vegetable improvement.

Cultivars are developed by selecting for desired traits or by removing undesirable traits that are controlled by genes (the blueprint for all characteristics in living organisms) from existing varieties or breeding lines. The plant species, varieties and clones are identified or selected by their physical features since olden times. However, these traits would change with respect to environmental and climatic conditions. The biochemical parameters like enzymes, proteins, alkaloids, etc. are also likely to change due to the stages of development of plant tissue. Successful selection strategies are dependent on the breeder’s ability to distinguish genetic effects from environmental effects on a visible or measurable trait. Therefore, the scientists resorted to use ‘genetic marker’, i.e., any stable and inheritable variation that can be measured or detected by a suitable method and can be used subsequently to detect the presence of a specific genotype or phenotype, which otherwise is very difficult to detect. Presently, the breeders and scientists all over the world are pursuing mostly DNA or molecular markers.

Mulching is a practice of covering the surface of soil with plastics, organic and non-organic materials like straw, grasses, sands, stones (boulders), synthetic plastics, etc. to reduce evaporation and to moderate wide fluctuations in diurnal soil temperature, especially in the root zone environment. It controls external evaporability and reduces energy supply to the evaporating site by cutting off solar radiation falling on the ground. Its main function is limited to control first stage of drying, which helps in improving moisture status and reducing soil temperature (Loy and Wells, 1975), besides checking seedling mortality and improving crop stand. It also suppresses weed-flora and reduces weed competition with crop for water and nutrients making them available in greater quantities for crop plants. Moreover, mulching helps in increasing downward movement of water, and its storage deep in the profiles escapes evaporation due to reduction in thermal gradients and exchange of vapours. The effectiveness of mulches in conserving moisture has generally been found to be higher under more frequency of rainfall, drought conditions and also during early period of plant growth when canopy cover remains scanty.

Vegetables are cheaper source of carbohydrates, proteins, minerals, vitamins and dietary fibers, and hence, assume a place of very great importance in the diet of individuals. All kinds of vegetable are grown almost universally. India occupies the prime position in the production of vegetable crops and is the second largest producer of vegetables in the world. The area and production of vegetables in India have been increasing during the post-green revolution period, and the country is heading towards another revolution in the form of Golden Revolution. However, there is an utmost requirement for genetic improvement of vegetable crops in terms of productivity, qualitative characters and resistance to biotic and abiotic stresses. For any genetic improvement programme, the presence of genetic variation is pre-requisite and mutation is the ultimate source of this heritable variation.

Mutation technique that holds promise of generating a much wider desirable variability than classical breeding has been refined. Out of 2275 mutant varieties worldwide in all crops, as many as 66 mutants are in vegetables. In terms of percentage, China, India, USSR, The Netherlands, The United States of America and Japan account for 26.8, 11.5, 9.3, 7.8, 5.7 and 5.3%, respectively of mutagen varieties in all crops. Such varieties are 3% in case of vegetables. After mutation treatment by a mutagen to a specific plant, DNA alterations (deletion, duplication, inversion, translocation, or transposition of larger DNA fragments, or simple basic pair changes) occur and lead to the DNA sequence change. Hence, new characteristics of that plant are established. In fact, induced mutations supply us with many new plant lines, which may be used as primary materials for crop breeding. Hence, mutation breeding seems to be an effective and ultimate option to improve vegetable crops in the shortest possible time. A large number of new promising varieties in different crops, including vegetables, have successfully been developed worldwide using various mutagens (Chopra, 2005).

1. SEED PATHOLOGY

The area of science that studies the relationship between pathogens and seeds is seed pathology.

2. TYPES OF PATHOGEN

Diseases of plants are caused primarily by three types of pathogens: bacteria, fungi, and viruses. Despite that fungi comprise the largest group of pathogens, the bulk of seed-specific diseases are caused by bacteria or viruses. This is due to the fact that bacteria and viruses are more adopt at entering and then travelling through the veins of the plant, a phenomenon known as ‘systemic infection,’ and from the vascular system may make their way into the developing embryos of seeds.

Fungi, in contrast, tend to be restricted to the outer layers of the plant, where they initiate infection by means of air-borne spores and then proceed to spread by attacking nearby cells of the outer layers. Fungi are much less likely to enter the vascular system of the plant, and thus infect seed mostly when they either ‘crawl’ all the way to seed on the outside of the plant, or else send out spores that land on the seed. In either case, the fungal spores are on the outside of the seed, in the layers of the seed coat, spores on the seed coat are more prone to either dry up and die, or else to get sloughed off with the seed coat during seed germination, thereby failing to cause disease on the next generation of plants.

2.4. Plan-wise Initiation of AICRP (Vegetable Crop) Centres in India Regular Centre Initiated in plan/year ICAR-Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi IV Plan (1971) ICAR-IARI Regional Vegetable Reseearch Station, Katrain, Kullu IV Plant (1971) ICAR-Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi IV Plan (1971) ICAR-IARI Regional Vegetable Research Station, Katrain, Kullu, Himachal Pradesh IV Plant (1971) ICAR-Indian Institute of Horticultural Research, Bangalore, Karnataka IV Plan (1971) Punjab Agriculture University, Ludhiana, Punjab IV Plan (1971) Dr. Rajendra Prasad Central Agricultural University, Pusa Bihar IV Plan (1971) Mahatma Phule Krishi Vidyapeeth, Rahuri, Maharashtra IV Plan (1971

Abstract

Forests are the second largest land use after agriculture in India covers around 24% of the geographical area. The key tree species like Teak, Sal, Shisham etc are commonly used for timber purposes however the species like Eucalypts, Acacias, Poplar, Melia and Leucaena are mainly used under agroforestry system in India. The most of the genetic material (seed/planting stock material) used in forestry sector in India is obtained from unspecified sources, from stands, natural or planted, which are neither classified nor managed specifically for seed or planting stock material production.

4.1. Promotion of Kitchen Gardening 4.1.1. Essential Guide Lines for Kitchen Gardening • The location should be in the backyard of the house. As far as practicable, kitchen garden plot should be located near to the well, water tap or other source of irrigation. It should never be located in the shady area of home, which is generally not suitable for most of the vegetables. There should be enough of sunlight for major part of day. • It should be fenced with boundary wall or fruit crop or live fence all around. • The layout should be such as to make the garden look attractive and allow access to all its parts. The land should be laid out in small paths and plots. • The garden should preferably be rectangular in shape. • About 200 m2 area is sufficient for a five members family to supply about 1.5 kg vegetable per day

Abstract

Intellectual property has increasingly assumed a vital role that we are witnessing today with the rapid pace of technological, scientific and medical innovation. Moreover, changes in the global economic environment have influenced the development of business models where intellectual property is a central element establishing value and potential growth. In India several new legislations for the protection of intellectual property rights (IPRs) have been passed to meet the international obligations under the WTO Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS). Forest seed of economic importance and the non-timber forest products (NTFPs) play a very important role in the country’s economy.

Post-harvest deterioration primarily means the loss of commodity after harvest. It is one of the serious problems for producers, distributors and consumers. Post-harvest deterioration of perishables is the spoilage of fruits and vegetables after harvesting. Perishables are the feed commodities with moisture content between 50 and 90%. Fruits with the size of 5 g to 5 kg or more, high to very high rate of respiration, high generation of heat, soft texture, easily damageable nature and shorter shelf life are more prone to the microbial damage. The post-harvest losses are caused either by pathological, physiological and mechanical means or combination of all these. These perishables because of having minerals, vitamins, and photochemicals (essentially required for the human health) become victim to the several biotic and abiotic factors easily. Once these fruits are detached from the plant are deprived of essential ingredients as hormones, nutrients, water and other requisites. These biotic and abiotic factors apart from rendering the produce unfit for human consumption reduce the aesthetic value, substantial decrease in food value and also organoleptic quality of the vegetables. The fleshy produce are prone to the exogenous agencies such as fungi, bacteria, etc. as well as other endogenous factors such as respiration, senescence, etc. which may lead to poor quality of the produce and also affect market quality. These perishables continue to respire and may carry out various biochemical activities, leading to ripening subsequently to senescence and making them more susceptible to microbial damage. In addition, tropical conditions prevailing in India, which are characterized by high temperature conditions, are optimal for fungal and bacterial infections. In India, the post-harvest losses of fresh fruits and vegetables are estimated to be about 30%. The post-harvest losses have been recorded are 5-20% at farmer’s field due to pre-harvest infection and sorting, 15-20% due to faulty packaging, 30-40% during transportation and 30-40% during marketing.

2.1. INTRODUCTION

Pollination is the process of mating in plants, that is, the transfer of pollen from anther to stigma. In flowers, pollen delivered to the stigma through a wide range of mechanisms that ensure an appropriate balance in the genetic makeup of the species. Most plant species have evolved ways to ensure an appropriate degree of interchange of genetic material between individuals in the population, and cross-pollination is the normal type of pollination. Plants benefit most by being pollinated by other individuals because this broadens the genetic characteristics of individual plants. As a result, they are more adaptable to necessary changes. Self- and often-pollinated crops evolved from cross pollinated crops.

Pollination followed by fertilization is important in agriculture, particularly for the crops whose economic part is either fruit or seed, such as, rice, wheat, fruit vegetables etc. For other crops, these events are also important for production of seed for cultivation of next generation, for examples, green vegetables (amaranth, palak, cabbage, cauliflower etc).

The study of pollination brings together many disciplines, such as botany, plant breeding, horticulture, entomology, and ecology. The pollination process as an interaction between flower and vector was first addressed in the 18th century by Christian Konrad Sprengel. It is important in horticulture and agriculture, because fruiting is dependent on fertilization, which is the end result of pollination.

5.1. INTRODUCTION
     
Rice is an important provider of nourishment for the world’s population. Indian scented rice, ‘Basmati’ has dominated the domestic and international market for aroma. Aromatic rice is an important commodity worldwide and command premium price over non-scented varieties. Most of the trade in aromatic rice is from India, Pakistan and Thailand. Bulk of aromatic rice from India and Pakistan consist of Basmati, while Thailand is the supplier of Jasmine rice. The Indian subcontinent has the Natural Gift of basmati rice that has been accepted as the best scented, long and slender grain in the world markets and gets high price. In addition to Basmati, many local landraces are grown traditionally, which excel in aroma, grain quality and cooking quality. Most of these genotypes are short bold to medium bold grain and hence not traded in the international market. However, in the domestic market its demand is greater than the Basmati rice. These are mainly used for special preparation, such as Khir in Bengal.