eChapters

1. SEED

A seed is defined as a ‘mature ovule’ or a reproductive unit formed from fertilized ovule, consisting of an embryo, reserve food and a protective cover.

Seed is the basic input in agriculture upon which other inputs are applied. A good vigorous seed utilities all the resources and realized as a reasonable output to the grower. It is wealth to the farmer, it is the yesterday’s harvest and tomorrow’s hope. Good seed in good soil realize good yield.

Seeds exhibit a great range of variation in shape, size, colour and behaviour. The most essential factor for the success of plantation is the ready availability of quality seeds. The quality of seed is totally responsible for the future return / performance of each and every seedling.

1. FRUITS

Fruit is a part of a flowering plant that derives from specific tissues of the flower, mainly one or more ovaries.

1.1. Types

1.1.1. Fleshy

1.1.1.1. Simple fleshy fruits

Develop from a flower with a single pistil.

1. FLOWERING

The flowering goes through a phase of vegetative growth producing more stems and leaves and a flowering phase where they produce the organs for sexual reproduction.

1.1. Synchronisation in flowering

Synchronous flowering refers to the phenomenon of coincident, simultaneous flowering of all population of a given species in a large region.

1. INFLORESCENCE

An inflorescence is a group or cluster of flowers arranged on a stem that is composed of a main branch or a complicated arrangement of branches.

1.1. Types of inflorescence

Inflorescences can be simple or compound.

1.1.1. Simple inflorescence

Inflorescence of sessile disc florets forming the capitulum

1.1.1.1. Indeterminate

Indeterminate simple inflorescences are generally called racemose. The main kind of racemose inflorescence is the raceme. The other kind of racemose inflorescences can all be derived from this one by dilation, compression, swelling or reduction of the different axes. Some passage forms between the obvious ones are commonly admitted.

Among abiotic stresses, low and high temperature stress is very critical for determining the agricultural production. Plants exhibit a maximum rate of growth and development at an optimum temperature or over a diurnal range of temperatures (Fitter and Hay, 1981). When ambient temperature deviates from optimal, physiological, biochemical, metabolic and molecular changes occur within plants. This is an effort of plants to maximize growth and developmental processes and to maintain cellular homeostasis during such adverse conditions. Under increasingly stressful conditions, plants experience progressively more abnormal, impaired or dysfunctional cellular and whole-plant processes until the cardinal temperatures for survival are reached (Fitter and Hay, 1981). At the extremes of the natural temperature range of a plant, the degree of physiological, cellular, metabolic and molecular dysfunction becomes so severe that it leads to death.

Growth constraints and stress result in significant crop losses and therefore the mechanisms underlying endurance and adaptation to these changes have long been the focus of intense research (Bray 2004). Kültz (2005) elaborated two types of responses to a particular kind of stress:

Vegetable crops, known as protective foods, are important for the healthy diet providing vitamins, minerals, fibre, amino acids and other bioactive compounds. Improvement in vegetable crops is inevitable for better yield, pest or disease resistance, morphological characters, nutritive quality, to adapt with environmental stress, climate change, offseason production, satisfying varying consumer preference etc. Vegetable crops comprise of a large number of species and are rich in diversity. Diverse genetic resources are pre-requisite for any crop improvement programme and vegetable improvement is carried out using exotic introductions, indigenous collection and hybrids/varieties by different breeding systems. Characterisation of genotypes is the description of germplasm giving information on heritable characters so that promising one can be utilised in breeding programme which is the best option for higher yield and other qualities. The morphological, physiological and molecular (biochemical and DNA) traits are called qualitative descriptor and yield, pest/disease resistance, stress tolerance etc are quantitative descriptors that are easily influenced by the environment factors. Apart from the higher production and resistance to biotic and abiotic factors, nutritional traits, flavour, processing qualities that increase the food value is also important in improvement programme of fruits as well as vegetables.

Genetic resources of vegetables available at international and national levels are characterised, evaluated and conserved. With the high diversity of vegetable crops, characterisation and evaluation of genetic resources become a stupendous responsibility requiring extensive infrastructure facilities and varying methods of evaluation (Srivastva, 2012). Genetic resources are characterised on highly heritable traits expressed across the environment. Apart from morphological characterisation, biochemical and molecular characterisation is also conducted that are useful for the identification of biotic and abiotic stress parameters, nutritional and processing quality. Genotype characterisation can be done efficiently using potential of biochemical and molecular markers that help to set up the breeding programme.

Genetic diversity is one of the fundamental character present in any population or species. It is the total variation either phenotypic or genotypic which have occured in a population through due course of evolution. Variation in any species depends on mutation, substitution (insertion/deletion) and response to selection. However, comprehensive studies on theoretical and empirical perspectives for diversity analysis may be found by evolutionary biologists to understand the factor that influences levels of genetic diversity in natural population (Lewontin, 1974). In brief, nucleotides/ protein codes are the basic unit to quantify total amount of variation. Bioinformatic tools and techniques help us to measure inferring relationships between genes, proteins or organisms through use of these DNA/protein sequences by integration of mathematical algorithms, statistical and computer databases.

Diversity analysis is popularly known as phylogenetic analysis in bioinformatic terms. The basic principle of phylogeny is analysis/alignment of characters; whether it is morphological or molecular data. For instance, in case of morphological data of a crop species, the leaf colour/stem colour/fruit colour/grain size etc. may be compared however sequence data is problem of interest for molecular phylogeny. The evolutionary history of any crop species/ organisms inferred from phylogeny analysis mostly depicted through treelike diagrams/ dendrograms. In this chapter, phylogenetic analysis based on only nucleotide/protein sequences are discussed. For analysis of phylogenetics, default assumptions (Baxevanis and Ouellette, 2006) are:

INTRODUCTION

Genetic engineering (GE) and genetically modified organisms (GMOs) provide powerful tools for sustainable development in agriculture, healthcare and many other industries. GMOs are those which were genetically engineered in a laboratory by incorporating a small foreign DNA fragment carrying a gene of interest into the native DNA of the organism. The foreign gene is attached with the necessary regulatory elements to help its expression in the new genetic environment. Genetically modified (GM) crops currently account for some 16 percent of the world’s land planted with soybean, maize, cotton and canola. The global demand for food is increasing because of the growing world population and decreasing arable land. At the same time food and agricultural systems have to respond to several changes such as increasing international competition, globalization and rising consumer demands for improved food quality, safety, health enhancement and convenience. Modern biotechnology involving the use of rDNA technology/genetic engineering has emerged as a powerful tool with many potential application for improving the quantity and quality of food supply. Foods derived from genetically modified crops, commonly referred to as genetically modified food and food ingredients have already become available worldwide with aim of enhancing productivity, decreasing the use of certain agricultural chemicals, modifying the inherent properties of crops, improving the nutritional value or even increasing shelf life. Results of DNA modification may not be limited only to the particular characteristics of the replaced gene. It is therefore important to ensure that when these organisms are released into nature they do not harm the environment or human health [EFSA, 2006]. Such concerns have led to broader interests in the theme of risk assessment in the release of GMOs. A cautious approach is necessary to assess environmental risks which may occur due to introduction of recombinant organisms in the natural environment [Johnson et al., 2007].

Intellectual property: It can be defined as creations of intellectual brain which has value, utility/application in the society and can be traded in commerce for economic benefits.

Significance of Intellectual Property: The significance of protection of Intellectual Property has been realized for wealth and value creation in a knowledge-based economy. The agricultural scientists are comparatively little aware of IPR issues because their primary mandate has always been the free delivery of technology to the end users particularly the farmers. After the implementation of TRIPS Agreement during 1995, the worldwide focus of scientists and planners was shifted on the development of time appropriate technologies, protection of inventions/ technologies and real time technology transfer through licensing for industrial and agricultural growth leading to overall economic development. Under the changing scenario of global trade, where national governments are entering into bilateral agreements for tackling IPR issues to promote trade, agricultural scientists must also look for managing their intellectual properties in tune with the existing IP legislation of the country.

The Indian centre of origin and diversity of cultivated plants represent an outstandingly rich reservoir of nature’s wealth of plant species which include a large number of economically important species including Vegetable Crops. Common vegetables like okra and brinjal are native to this region. Out of the recorded 110 genera and 640 species of cucurbits, 100 species representing 36 genera occur in India. Twenty of these species are endemic. Adoption of high yielding crop varieties and hybrids along with changing land use patterns have led to rapid replacement of native cultivars in most cases. Conserving and sustainable utilization of locally adapted types and primitive landraces are, hence, now major concerns at the national and global levels.

The National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources (NBPGR) at New Delhi is the nodal organization in India with the national mandate to plan, conduct, promote and coordinate all activities concerning plant exploration and collection, germ plasm import and exchange, plant quarantine, germplasm multiplication and distribution, evaluation and characterization, documentation and conservation of both indigenous and introduced genetic variability in cultivated plants and their wild relatives.

The challenging job of collecting, genetic evaluation and utilization of plant genetic resources cannot be satisfactorily accomplished by one organization. The enormous task of safeguarding and promoting greater utilization of these valuable resources can be best achieved through a networking approach. Professional development is the key to success of this endeavour. NBPGR organizes regularly short-term training courses on various aspects of PGR to impart latest knowledge and techniques to scientists and technicians engaged in crop improvement programmes and handling germpalsm collections.

PLANT EXPLORATION AND GERMPLASM COLLECTION OF PLANT GENETIC RESOURCES

Plant exploration and collection activities have been undertaken for a wide range of needs - by naturalists, travelers and plant hunters over the past several centuries in the quest for new and better economic plants in the southeast Asian region, ornamentals in the Himalayas and many others; by taxonomists for working out plant diversity and delineating phyto- geographic differences, and providing a basis for pinpointing areas with high species diversity and changes over time; world-wide collection, augmentation and characterization of crop plant diversity by Vavilov and co-workers (1926) for understanding the patterns of crop plant diversity and delineating centres of diversity; search for wild forms of species, and wild relatives of crop plants for working out primary centres of origin and crop genepools; biosystematic study, survey and in situ study and collection in protected areas for determining patterns of diversity build-up in crop and wild species. Concept of centres of origin of crop plants, importance of the wild genepool of crops, dependence on wild plants as a source of edible and otherwise useful species ensuing from these efforts provide the basis for systematic exploration and collection of plant genetic resources.

Plant genetic resources represent both the basis for agricultural development and a reservoir of genetic adaptability that acts as a buffer against environmental changes. The erosion of these resources threatens world food security. From an agricultural utilitarian standpoint, plant genetic resources can be considered limited and perishable natural resources. PGR forms a distinct group and include all plant species, which contribute to people livelihoods by providing food, medicine, feed for domestic animals, fibres, clothing, shelter, energy and other uses and are subject to cultivation by man as well as the wild relatives of these species. Genetic diversity simply means all the variety of genes that exist in a particular variety or species. They provide the raw material (genes) which, when used and combined in the right way, produce new and better plant varieties, and are an irreplaceable source of such characteristics as resistance to disease, local adaptation, and productivity. Plant genetic resources are now, and will continue to be in the future, of inestimable value independently of whether scientists use them by means of conventional plant breeding or modern genetic engineering. These genes are dispersed throughout local cultivars and natural plant populations that have been selected over thousands of years by farmers and nature for their characteristics of adaptation, resistance and/or productivity. The road to a continuous increase in the production and quality of food lies through the protection and efficient utilization of plant genetic resources; this requires their conservation, evaluation, documentation and exchange.

Plant biodiversity is the single greatest resource that man garnered from nature during the long cultural development phase. More than 2.5 lakh species of mosses, ferns, conifers and flowering plants and more than 50,000 plant species are yet to be documented, primarily in the remote and less studied reaches of tropical forests.

Vegetable crops in which rich diversity occurs in India are Cowpea, Common bean, Cole crops, Okra, Brinjal, Sweet potato, Taros, Yams, Sword bean, Velvet bean and Elephant foot yam. Wide diversity was observed in chives, leeks and other Allium spp in Kumaoun and Garhwal Himalayas; cluster bean in Western arid zone; lab lab bean in Deccan plateau; cucurbits in Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh and leaf vegetables like Amaranth and Fagopyrum in Western Himalayan region. Tropical vegetables consist of solanaceus fruits (tomato, hot pepper, brinjal), cucurbits (water melon, muskmelon, cucumber, pumpkins and squashes, bottle gourd, chow-chow, ivy gourd, bitter gourd, ash gourd, round gourd, snake gourd, pointed gourd, sponge gourd, ridge gourd), malvaceous vegetables (Okra),legumes (common bean, lima bean, dolichos bean, cowpea, sword bean, winged bean), allium (onion, shallot, garlic, leek) and leaf vegetables (amaranth, spinach beet, Ceylon spinach). The indigenous vegetables both cultivated and wild have important role in household nutrition, economy and food security. There are 25 hot spots of biodiversity of which Western Ghats and Eastern Himalayan region are the most important ones. Indo-Myanmar region is one of the largest hot spots of the world and is the centre of origin of tuber crops like yams, taro, Amorphophallus and Alocasia. Tropical tuber crops form an important group of subsistence crops especially to those living in tropics and sub tropical zones. Tuber crops are the third important food crops after cereals and grain legumes. Major tuber crops are cassava, sweet potato, Asiatic yam, African yam, lesser yam, elephant foot yam, taro, tannia and country potato. Minor tuber crops are arrowroot, winged bean, yam bean, canna, safed musli and Jerusalem artichoke. Sweet potato is one of the world’s highest yielding crops.

Biodiversity is the origin of all species of crops and domesticated and the variety within them. It is also the foundation of ecosystem services essential to sustain agriculture and human well-being. Today’s crop and livestock biodiversity are the result of many thousands years of human intervention. The biodiversity in vegetable crops is composed by the genetic diversity, as species diversity (inter specific diversity) and as diversity of genes within a species (intra specific diversity) referring to the vegetable grown varieties, and by the diversity of agro-ecosystems (agro-biodiversity).

Crop diversity is the variance in genetic and phenotypic characteristics of plants used in agriculture. Over the past 50 years, there has been a major decline in two components of crop diversity; genetic diversity within each crop and the number of species commonly grown.

3.1 Tomato

Tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum) is an important vegetable crop. Its 2n= 24.

Floral biology

Flowers are borne in small forked racemose cyme. Anthesis starts at 6.30 a.m. and continues up to 11.00 a.m. Anther dehiscence is longitudinal. It occurs 1-2 days after opening of corolla. The stamen sheds its pollen when the style grows up through anther tube, thus self-pollination occurs. When the stigma protrudes above the anther tube, chances of cross pollination through bees increases. The optimum temperature for pollination is around 21°C.

TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS

2.1 Mango
 

Mango is considered to be an allopolyploid. The chromosome number is 2n =40. The polyembryonic seedlings of cv. Vellaikolumban, earlier reported to be 2n= 80 was later shown to be a diploid. In Canary Island, a putative tetraploid viz Gomera-1 has been identified.

Floral biology

Flower starts opening early in the morning from 4-7 a.m. and maximum flowers open between 9.30-10.30 a.m. and complete 11 a.m. Dehiscence of anthers takes place at 11.30 a.m. and it continues up to 3.45 p.m. The pollen grains are oval, or triangular or oblong. Stigma becomes receptive even 18 hours before flower opening. Mode of pollination is entomophily; nectar is present to attract the insects.

The flowering duration is usually of short i.e. 2 to 3 weeks. The mango inflorescence or panicle bears mainly two types of flowers - male and perfect. The number of flowers per panicle varies between 1000 to 6000 depending upon the variety and climatic factors. The percentage of perfect flowers varies between 0.74 per cent in Rumani, 16.41 to 55.7 per cent in Neelum and up to 69.8 per cent in Langra.

Horticultural crops include the fruit crops, vegetables, spices, plantation crops, medicinal plants, aromatic plants, commercial flower crops and ornamental plants.

Knowledge on the methods by which these reproduce is of primary importance from the standpoint of plant breeding. Besides, their annual or perennial nature also decides the methods of breeding to be adopted to get desired improvement.

Two divisions of methods of reproduction commonly recognized are:

1. Asexual i.e. vegetative parts of the plants are utilized to produce new individuals.

2. Sexual i.e. gametic fusion, the resultant zygote develops into seed which is utilized to produce new individual.

This group can be further placed in several sub divisions according to the mode of pollination. They are

a. Naturally self pollinated crop - (e.g. tomato, pepper, brinjal) wherein cross pollination occurs less than 4 % only.

b. Often cross pollinated crop- (e.g. chillies, bhendi) wherein though self pollination is more frequent, cross- pollination may occur so frequently that some methods of preventing cross pollination between varieties and strains of different genotypic constitution must be followed throughout the breeding programme.
Common breeding methods can be applied to the above two groups, however, the parents chosen for breeding under often cross pollinated crop need to be selfed for few generations to select desirable, homozygous lines.

Introduction:Jamun (Syzygium cumini) belonging to the family Myrtaceae is a popular indigenous fruits Of India. It is also known as black plum, Indian black cherry, Ram jamun etc. in different parts of India. The tree is tall and handsome, evergreen, generally grown for shade and windbreak on roads and avenues. In India, the maximum number of jamun trees are found scattered throughout the tropical and subtropical regions. It also occurs in the lower range of the Himalayas up to an elevation of 1,300 meters and in the Kumaon hills up to 1,600 meters. It is widely grown in the larger parts of India from the IndoGangetic plains in the North to Tamil Nadu in the South.

Soil:The jamun tree can be grown on a wide range of soils. However, for high yield potential and good plant growth, deep loam and a welldrainedsoil are needed. Jamun can grow well under salinity and waterlogged conditions too.

Climate: Jamun prefers to grow under tropical and subtropical climate. It is also found growing in lower ranges of the Himalayas up to an altitude of 1300 meters. The jamun requires dry weather at the time off towering and fruit setting.

Varieties: The common variety grown under North Indian conditions is “Ram Jarnun”. It produces big sized, oblong fruits, deep purple or bluish-black in color at full ripe stage. The pulp of the ripe fruit is purple pink and the fruit is juicy and sweet. The stone is small in size. The variety ripens in the month of June- July and it is very common both in rural as well as in urban markets.

Botany: Emblica officinalis belonging to the family Euphorbiaceae commonly known as Amla or Indian Gooseberry or Nelli is an important crop with high medicinal value. The fruits have the richest source of vitamin-C (700 mg per 100 g of fruits) and is considered to be good liver tonic. The various preparations using Amla include Chyavanprash, Triphala churna, Brahma Rasayana and Madumegha churna. The fruit is valued as an antiscorbutic, diuretic, laxative, antibiotic and anti-dysentric. Phyllemblin, obtainedfrom fruit pulp has been found to have mild depressent action on central nervous system. It has good demand from the industries for the preparation of various health care products also like hair oil, dye, shampoo, face creams and tooth powder.

Soil: Light as well as medium heavy soils except purely sandy soil is ideal for amla cultivation. The tree is well adopted to dry regions and can also be grown in moderate alkaline soils.

Climate: It is a tropical plant. Annual rainfall of 630-800 mm is ideal for its growth. The young plant upto the age of 3 years should be protected from hot wind during May-June and from frost during winter months. The mature plants can tolerate freezing temperature as well as a high temperature upto 46^OC.

Varieties: The varieties recommended for cultivation are Banarasi, Chakaiya, Francis, NA-4 (Krishna) NA 5 (Kanchan), NA-6, NA-7, NA-10 and BSR-1 (Bhavanisagar).

Botany: Coconut palm (Cocos nucifera) belonging to the family Palmae is a slender palm tree widely distributed throughout the tropical regions,with a size that can vary between 12 to 30 meters high. Each inflorescence is a branched flower cluster (panicle), located at the base of the leaves. Its flowers, male and female (monoecious), can be white to pale yellow. Fruiting occurs throughout the year, and the fruit is a drupe with a dry fibrous mesocarp popularly known as coconut.

Coconut fruit has an ovoid shape, constituted by 3 angles and 3 germination holes at the end, with a size between 20 and 30 centimeters in diameter. Coconut fruit consists of a brown fibrous bark and a hard shell, booking a seed inside. The central cavity of the fruit has an aqueous or milky liquid called coconut water that is a nutritional mixture aimed for coconut to grow. When the fruit ripens , this fluid accumulates fat and it is called coconut juice or milk. The seed of the coconut palm is the second largest known , after the coco-de-mer (Lodoicea maldivica ), that can reach 40–50 cm in diameter and weigh from 15 to 30 kg. The seed of coconut is hollow inside and it is covered with a white pulp, oily and edible.

Medicinal uses:It is said to have analgesic, antirheumatic, antibacterial , anticancer, antioxidant, hypoglycemic, hypotensive and immune stimulating properties. Its oil also has numerous cosmetic applications

Botany: Coffee trees are evergreen shrubs of the rubiaceae family. Coffee of commerce consists of seeds of coffee which when roasted, ground and soaked in hot water yields a fragrant stimulating infusion used for preparing the beverage called Coffee. It is native of America and introduced in India in 1936 near Chickmanglur in Karnataka.

Coffee plants have bright green opposite leaves with smooth margins. Its flowers, white, grow in clusters in the axils of the leaves and are aromatic. From them, fruits are born.They are red drupes with the size of a cherry The outside of the fruit is fleshy and inside it there are two seeds or coffee beans, surrounded by a membranous layer of leathery texture, hence this layer is commonly known as the “parchment”. Some species of trees only produce one seed per fruit are known as “pearl coffee”. In double seed varieties, the two seeds that grow inside each fruit press each other, so they stop the growth in the part which is in contact, so this becomes flat.

Soil and Climate: Coffee arbica comes up well in high altitude from 800 to 1650 meters but -C. canephora Pierre ex A.Froehner adopts well to lower elevations. At high altitude the crop is often late and susceptiable to frost and high winds.Evenly distributed rainfall of 2250 mm is essential. Heavy rainfall is not counducive as it encourages rotting of leaves and plants are easily susceptible to fungal diseases.

Botany: Cashew belongs to the Family Aricardiaceae. A small evergreen tree native of tropical America from Mexico to Peru and Brazil but now cultivated largely in Malabar, Kerala, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh and to some extend in Maharashtra, Goa, Odisha and West Bengal

The commercial production is mainly confined to India, Mozambique, Tanzania, Kenya; Brazil, Philippines, Malaysia and Sri Lanka.Cashew is an important foreign earning crop of India, remarking second (29%) in the international trade of the nuts. It is a crop of marginal lands and can be grown under rainfed conditions.

Soil and climate: It grows up well in all soils. Red sandy loam is best suited. Plains as well as hill slopes upto 600 - 700 feet elevation are suitable for cultivation. Season: June - December. Propagation: Soft wood grafting, air layer and epicotyl grafting. Requirement of plants: 200 plants/ha. Preparation of field: Pits of 45 cm3 size are dug and filled up with a mixture of soil + 10 kg FYM + one kg neem cake and 100 g Methyl parathion 1.3 %.

Botany: The Cocoa (Theobroma cocoa) belonging to the family Sterculiaceae. Cocoa tree is a shade tolerant, moisture loving, understory rainforest tree. The trees live for up to 100 years, but cultivated trees are considered economically productive for only about 60 years. Naturally Cocao grows to a height of 15 meters, but cultivated trees are trimmed shorter to make harvesting easier. The leaves of Cocoa are smooth bright green, oblong, about 15cm by 8cm. The seeds are encased in a large colourful pod which grows close to tree after a flower. The large pod is green while maturing and turns yellow, orange, red or purple when ripe. They range from about 10 cm to greater than 40 cm in length.

Soil and climate: Potash rich alluvial soils friable in nature with high humus and moisture retentivity with a pH of 6.6-7.0 are suitable. Cocoa is normally cultivated at altitudes upto 1200 m above MSL with an annual rainfall of 150 cm and a relative humidity of 80 % and annual mean temperature of 24^oC to 25^oC. Cocoa can be grown as intercrop in coconut and arecanut gardens.

Botany:Fenugreek is a leguminous plant, belonging to the Papilionaceae family. Fenugreek is an annual herbaceous plant between 20 and 50cm high. (sometimes up to 100cm.). Its stem is erect, branched, grooved and with little pubescence. The leaves are compound, petiolate, oblong leaflets formed by three kills reminding those of alfalfa. White or yellow flowers , isolated or arranged in pairs. Fenugreek fruits are narrow and elongated pods. They contain 10 to 20 seeds, tiny yellow, quadrangular, with a groove in the central part dividing them into two unequal lobes.

Land Requirements: Land to be used for seed production of Kasuri methi and methi shall be free from volunteer plants.

Varieties: Co 1, Pusa Early Bunching, Lam selection 1, Rajendra Kranti, Kissar Sonali, RMT1and CO 2.

Soil: A rich well drained loamy soil is best suited.

Climate: Cool and comparatively dry, frost free climate. It requires a warm climate with mild temperatures for a good seed production (between 8 and 27°C).It grows well in full sun. Sow it in places sheltered from the wind. Resistant to frost and temperatures down to -5°C. However, low temperatures during planting causes not all seeds to germinate.

Season: June - July and October - November.

Botany:Coriandrum sativum belonging to the family Umbelliferae. It is an annual soft shrub that attains a height of 1 to 3 feet. Leaves are in basal cluster varies from 3 to 15 cm in length and are oblong to ovate in shape. Leaflets are 1 to 2 centimeter in length and are ovate to round. Flower is of white color which can vary from light purple to creamish in color. These appear in umbles. Fruit is roundish in shape bearing color that varies from yellow to brown. It is tripped and gets divided in to two then crushed with fingers. The plant flowers and fruits in late winters.

Land Requirement: Land to be used for seed production of coriander should be free from volunteer plants

Varieties: CO 1, CO 2, CO 3, CO (CR) 4, GAU 1, UD 1, UD 2, UD 20 and UD 21

Soil: Well drained black cotton soil and red loamy soil. For rainfed cultivation soil should be clay in nature and the pH should be 6 – 8.Coriander performs well at a temperature range of 20 – 25 °C.

Climate: Cool and comparatively dry, frost free climate

Botany

Phyllanthus is an herb common to Central and Southern India. It can grow to 30–60 centimeters in height and blooms with many yellow flowers. All parts of the plant are employed therapeutically. It is a small erect annual herb 10-60 cm tall widespread in tropical areas. Leaves are small elliptical - oblong and flowers are whitish green & minute. It bears ascending herbaceous branches. The bark is smooth and light green. The fruits are tiny, smooth capsules containing seeds.Kizhanelli is a circum-tropical weed, thriving well under tropical conditions. In India, it grows abundantly up to 700m altitude in Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal, Orissa, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Kerala.

Major constituents – Phyllanthin (0.4-0.5%) and Hypophyllanthin

Uses- Hepatitis B and Jaundice

Botany: Senna, Cassia angustifola belonging to the family Leguminosae is a perennial 1-2 m height undershrub. The stem is erect, smooth, and pale green to light brown with long spreading ascending branches. Leaves are compound with four to eight pairs of leaflets. The full grown leaflets are bluish-green to palegreen in colour and emit a characteristic fetid smell when crushed. The flowers are small and yellow and axillary arranged racemes. The pods are broadly oblong about 5-8 cm long and 2-3 cm broad, green in beginning and change to greenish-brown to dark brown on maturity. Each pod has 5 to 7 ovate, compressed, smooth, dark-brown seeds.

Varieties : KKM - 1, Anand Late Selection, ALFT-2 and Sona

Soil and climate: In Tamil Nadu, it is grown in sandy or sandy loam or laterite soils. It is a hardy warm weather crop grown under rainfed and irrigated conditions. Senna is also cultivated successfully on black cotton soils. It has a great tolerance to high soil salinity, however, shedding of some lower leaves often occurs. The soil pH suited for cultivation is 7.0-8.5. But, the most suitable to sandy loam to loam soils which are more friable and well drained.

Botany: Periwinkles (Catharanthus roseus) belonging to the family Apocynaceae are evergreen perennials that produce bright blue flowers. They grow best in well-draining, moist soil and partial sun to full shade. They work well as sprawling groundcover or border plants and bloom from early spring to early fall. Periwinkles are often grown as transplants, but they can be started from seed about 10 weeks before the last frost with the proper care.

Varieties: Nirmal, Dhawal and Prabal

Soil and climate: It is suited to all types of soil and tropical climatic conditions. Well distributed annual rainfall of 100 cm or more is ideal for raising as a rainfed crop.

Seeds and planting: Propagated through seeds either by direct sowing or throughtransplanting.

Seed rate: 2.5 kg/ha : Direct sowing

0.5 kg/ha : Through seedlings

45 - 60 days old seedlings are transplanted at a spacing of 45 x 20 cm during June - July or September - October.

Botany

Ashwagandha (Withania somnifera), also known as Indian ginseng belonging to the family Solanaceae, is an important ancient plant, the roots of which have been employed in Indian traditional systems of medicine, Ayurveda and Unani to cure asthma, fever, chest complaints. It is an erect branching undershrub reaching about 1.50 m in height. It grows in dry and sub-tropical regions. Being hardy and drought tolerant species with its enormous biocompounds, its usage is forever regarded and continuous to enjoy the monopoly in many parts of India, particularly in Madhya Pradesh. It grows in dry parts in sub-tropical regions. Rajasthan, Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Gujarat, Maharashtra and Madhya Pradesh are the major Ashwagandha producing states of the country. Roots are fleshy, tapering, whitish brown. Leaves are ovate and flowers are greenish. The mature fruits are orange-red berries.

Varieties:Poshita and Rakshita are high yielding varieties released by CSIRCIMAP, Lucknow. Jawahar 20 is cultivated in Madhya Pradesh. WSR is another variety released by CSIR-Regional Research Laboratory, Jammu. Nagori is a local variety with starchy roots

Varieties: No named variety

Soil: Red sandy soil and sandy loam soil are highly suitable. Soil drainage is essential and hard pan and water logged soils should be avoided.

Climate: Suitable for plain and lower hills. Requires 70 cm annual rain fall

Propagation: Terminal three to four nodal cuttings measuring 10 cm length is used

Land Preparation: Apply 15 t FYM/ha. Ridges are formed at a spacing of 60 cm. Cuttings have to be planted at a spacing of 45 cm.

Nutrient management: Nutrients Quantity (kg / ha) N 30 P 60 K 50 The above nutrients can be applied in two split doses viz., 30 and 45 days after planting. In micronutrient deficient soils, ZnSO4 can be applied as basal fertilizer.

Pre sowing seed treatment: Fortification with GA3 100 ppm (or) moringa leaf extract 2% for 16 h (or)KH₂PO4 2% for 16 hours

Age of the seedling for transplanting: The seeds are first sown in primary nursery (pot) and after 16 day the seedlings are transplanted to raised nursery and after 24 days transplanted to main field.

Botany :Annual Chrysanthemum is a winter annual that can be grown either as pot plants or in groups as bed plants for various ornamental purposes. There are two types of annual Chyrsanthemums: Chrysanthemum Segetum and C.coronarium. Major varieties of Chrysanthemum segetum L. are Morning Star, Evening Star, Eastern Star, Blanca, Eldorado, Gloria, Isabel, Romeo, and yellow Stone while popular cultivars of C. coronarium L. include Nivea, Oreon, Albo, Golden Crown, Luteum, Tom Thumb Golden Gem, Tom Thumb-Primrose Gem and Tetra Comet. In addition to this, there is another type of annual Chrysanthemum, i.e. C. carinatum. Popular varieties of C. carinatum S. are Merry, Atrococcineum, Burridgeanum, Eclipse, Flammenspiel, John Bright and Northern Star.

Propagation

Annual Chrysanthemums can be propagated by seeds. Their sowing time depends upon climate. It varies in different parts of India. In the Northern plains, winter season annual Chrysanthemums are sown during September–October. The seeds are sown in nursery beds, earthen pots, seed pans or wooden seed trays. The seed compost should consist of one part each of garden soil, coarse sand, farmyard manure and leaf-mould. For preparing the nursery beds, the soil should be dug up thoroughly and sufficient farmyard manure, should be mixed in soil. Raised nursery beds of convenient size (normally 60cm wide and 15cm high) should be prepared. If soil is heavy, some quantity of sand may be added. It is better if the soil of nursery bed or earthen pots is sterilized with 2% formalin. For this, soil is drenched with formalin solution and is covered with polythene sheet for 45hr. Afterwards, the polythene is removed and soil is dried before sowing the seeds.

In India marigold is one of the most commonly grown flowers and used extensively on religious and social functions in different forms. Because of their ease in cultivation, wide adaptability to varying soil and climatic conditions, long duration of flowering and attractively coloured flowers of excellent keeping quality, the marigolds have become one of the most popular flowers in our country. Flowers are sold in the market as loose or as garlands. Due to its variable height and colour marigold is especially use for decoration and included in landscape plans.

Potato has special seed production problems as the quality characteristics of seed potatoes are influenced by a number of factors and important amongst them are the diseases and pests namely, viruses, fungi, bacteria and nematodes. Once the seed tuber is infected the pathogens, specially viruses, permeate through the plant system. The plant growth, therefore declines and the yield reduces progressively. It is therefore, important that seed stocks should not only be genetically pure but also should be in right physiological condition and disease free at the time of planting. Seed production technology developed for seed potato production, thus aims at producing disease free, genetically pure seed. There are now two independent channels of seed production for hills and plains.

Hill seed : The seed produced in hills (2500 metres above sea level) at suitable locations is called ‘Hill Seed’.

Plain seed : The seed produced in plains at suitable locations is called ‘plain seed’. Northern plains have emerged as an important source of potato seed production. The low aphid, plains seed is in right physiological condition at the planting time and yields higher than the traditional hill grown seed.

Once healthy seed potatoes are introduced into the system of growing them during low Aphid period accompanied by a systematic insecticide application, roguing and removal of haulms before the aphids attain critical number and the re growth is checked, the health standards for the seed crop could be maintained for a number of generations. This system of seed potato production has been designated as ‘Seed Plot Technique’.

Botany: French bean has tap root system with poor nodule formation. Leaves are trifoliate. Though a self-pollinated crop, French bean offers wide variability for plant growth (bushy / climbing), colour of pod (green / waxy coloured), cross section of pod (flat / oval / round), pliability (stringed / string less) etc.

Varieties

1. Arkakomal: Plant is bushy. 70 days for flowering.
2. Blue pod medium: It is a white seed variety. It has bluish black spots on pods.
3. Bountiful: Introduction from US comes up in September to February. Seeds are Brown sweetish. It is resistant to common disease.
4. Contender: Tolerant to powdery mildew and mosaic.
5. Pant anupama: Developed from pantnagar. Bushytype
6. Pusaparvathi: Developed by X ray radiation of American variety IARI

Botany : Pea is a self pollinated crop. Time of anthesis is 5.45 to 6.30 AM. Time of dehiscence is 5.45 to 7.30 AM. Duration of pollen futility is on the day of anthesis to 24 hr there after. Duration of stigma receptivity is 48 hr before and 24 hr after anthesis.

Method of seed production : Var: Open pollination ; Hybrids: Emasculation and Pollination

Varieties / Hybrids

Early varieties : Arlcel, Matar Ageta 8, Early Badger, Pant Uphar, Hisar Harit, P.M. 2, Jawahar Matar 4, Meteor, Alaska, Lucknow Boniya, Pant Sabzi Matar 3, Pant Matar 2, VL Ageti Matar 7, Asauj.

Mid season varieties: Bonneville, Lincoln, VL 3, Shalimar Matar, Solan Nirog, Jawahar Matar 1, Pant Uphar, p88, Khapar Kheda, JP. 83, JP71, NP. 289, T19

Late varieties: Kinnauri

Origin

Beet root originated from Beta vulgaris L. ssp. maritima by hybridization with B. patula. Crop has site of origin probably in Europe. Earlier types were with long roots like that of carrot. Beet root, sugar beet and palak belong to species B. vulgaris and are cross compatible.

Botany

Beet root is a biennial, producing a fleshy elongated hypocotyls and a rosette of leaves in first year and flowers in second year. Upper portion of fleshy root develops from hypocotyls and basal part from tap root. Concentric rings seen in cross section of root are as a result of alternate formation of vascular tissues and storage parenchyma tissues. Root skin colour varies from orange red to dark purple red. Colour of beet root is due to presence of red violet pigments of â cyanins and a yellow pigment, â xanthin. It has extensive tap root system and tap root grows as deep as 3m. Rosette leaves develop in a close sp

Carrot (Daucus carota Stova condolle) is one of the most important and widely used root vegetable belonging to the family Umbelliferae. The seed production can be done during September – October in plains and in hills the sowing takes place in June and roots are replanted during the first week of October.

Method of seed production

Carrot is a cross-pollinated crop and self-pollination occurs to the extent of 0-5%. Crosspollination is mainly through insects. Seeds should be allowed to set by cross-pollination in isolation. Seed production is done by seed to seed and root to seed method. In seed to seed method, the matured roots are left to produce flowers and seeds in the place where seeds are sown initially. In root to seed method, roots at edible maturity should be uprooted and the roots of true to varietal characteristics should be selected and transplanted to the well prepared field after proper trimming of roots and shoots. This root to seed method is preferred for seed production in carrot since the root rot infection is high in seed to seed method of seed production.

The isolation distance maintained between the fields of other varieties and the fields of the same variety not conforming to varietal purity requirements for certification is 1000 metres for foundation and 800 metres for certified seed production. During mother root production an isolation of 5 metres should be followed.

Botany

Cauliflower is highly cross pollinated crop due to self incompatibility. Flower is protogynous in nature. Stigma remains receptive 5 days before and 4 days after opening of the flower. The time taken from pollination to fertilization is 248 hours depending upon the temperature. The optimum temperature for fertilization and seed development is 12°C – 18°C. Bees are the major pollinators.

Method of seed production: There are two methods of seed production

1. in situ method (seed to seed method)
2. Transplanting method (Head to seed method)

For seed production, seed to seed method is recommended since the head to seed method in India has not been very successful. In seed to seed method (In situ method) the crop is allowed to over winter and produce seed in the original position, where they are first planted in the seedling stage.

Elephant foot yam is an underground stem tuber belonging to the family Araceae, one of the most popular tuber crops, extensively used as a favourite vegetable by millions of people in India. It has both nutritional and medicinal value and is usually consumed as cooked vegetable. It has high dry matter production capability per unit area than most of the other vegetables. Elephant foot yam is a remunerative and profitable stem tuber crop. The crop is gaining popularity due to its shade tolerance, easiness in cultivation, high productivity, less incidence of pests and diseases, steady demand and reasonably good price.

Botany :The cabbage plant, Brassica oleracea, is an herbaceous annual or biennial vegetable in the family Cruciferae grown for its edible head. The head of the cabbage is round and forms on a short thick stem. The leaves are thick and alternating with wavy or lobed edges and the roots are are fibrous and shallow. The plant produces large yellow flowers. The densely leaved heads can range in size from 0.5 to 3.6 kg (1-8 lb) depending on variety. The plant is usually grown as an annual.

Botany

The plant is highly cross pollinated due to heteromorphism and bees being the major pollinators.

Varieties: PKM 1 & PKM 2

Method of seed production : Seed to Seed.

Land requirement : Uproot all the wild and non specific moringa trees if any near the field within a radius of 1500ft. Good drainage facility is must for moringa.

Isolation requirement : A distance of at least 500 M is necessary for seed production.

Season : Early season (July August), Mid season (September), Late season (October -November). Best season is September October, so that flowering starts during summer which facilities better pollination and seed set.

Amaranth is an annual herb with erect growth and scarce to profuse branching habit. Flowers are borne terminally and in axils of leaves in clusters. Basic unit of inflorescence is called as glomerule. Flowers are small, unisexual and monoecious. Proportion of male and female flowers varies in an inflorescence. Each glomerule consists of a staminate flower and a number of pistillate flowers. The extent of cross pollination is governed by proportion of male and female flowers in an inflorescence and position of inflorescence in plant

Onion is one of the oldest cultivated plant species. Onion forms the bulb in the first year and the seed in the second year. The leaves arise from a shortened crown stem. The sheaths of the older or outermost leaves enclose the younger ones. The basal portion of the leaves encircles the stem, and thickens to form the bulb. The stem elongates during the second year forming the flower stalk. The onion has a fibrous root system extending to a depth of over one meter, but most of them are found in upper surface about one-half meter area.

Pumpkin (Cucurbita maxima Duch.) is a well known and widely cultivated vegetable variety of the family Cucurbitaceae. The seed production can be done in summer season (February - March) and in rainy season (April - May). In Tamil Nadu, sowing during July – August is best for seed production.

Botany: Bottle gourds belonging to the family cucurbitaceae is an annual vine having white flowers and smooth, large, hard-shelled gourds. Brownish seeds are numerous in a whitish green pulp. Each seed is somewhat rectangular in shape with grooved notches near the attached end. Grown most often in warmer climates, this squash grows from 6 to 36 inches long and 3 to 12 inches in diameter.

Seeds leaves, flowers and young stems are all edible. Helpful in shedding extra calories. It contains higher concentrations of Dietary Fiber, Vitamin A, Vitamin C, Vitamin K, Vitamin B6, Folate, Potassium, Manganese, Protein, Vitamin E, Thiamin, Riboflavin, Pantothenic Acid, Calcium, Iron, Magnesium, Phosphorus and Selenium. A rich source of minerals and vitamins, bottle gourds contains many healing and medicinal properties. The cooked vegetable is not only easy to digest but also contains cooling, calming (or sedative), diuretic properties. It contains low calories also has iron, Vitamin C and B complex. Regular consumption of this vegetable provides relief to people suffering with digestive problems, diabetics and convalescents.

Botany:Snake gourd belonging to the family Cucurbitaceae native to Southeastern Asia and Australia but cultivated throughout the world for its curved and oddly shaped fruits that appear like snakes hanging on the supports or ground. This subtropical plant grows very fast in warm climates and produces lots of fruits for a long time. It is suitable for growing for home garden and fresh market.

Climate and soil: Snake gourd is adapted to wide variety of soil and climatic conditions. It requires a minimum temperature of 18^oC during early growth, but optimal temperatures are in the range of 24–27^oC. Snake gourd tolerates a wide range of soil but prefers a well drained sandy loam soil that is rich in organic matter. The optimum soil pH is 6.0–6.7, but plants tolerate alkaline soils up to pH

Varieties: CO1,CO2, PKM 1, PLR 1 and PLR 2.

Ribbed gourd (Luffa acutangula (L) Roxb.) belonging to the family Cucurbitaceae is a well known vegetable variety in India. The seed production can be done in both summer and rainy season.
Method of seed production

Bitter gourd is a cross-pollinated crop which occurs through bees. Seeds should be allowed to set by open-pollination in isolation. The isolation distance maintained between the fields of other varieties and the fields of the same variety not conforming to the varietal purity requirements for certification is 1000 metres for foundation and 500 metres for certified seed production.

Bitter gourd (Momordica charantia) is a widely grown vegetable variety in India. It is one of the important members of the family Cucurbitaceae. The seed production can be done throughout the year in tropical climate and during spring, summer and rainy season in subtropical climates. In Tamil Nadu September – October is suitable for seed production. In hills seed production can be done during summer season.

Botany: The ash gourd(Benincasa hispida) belonging to the family cucurbitaceae is an annual creeping vine that can either climb structures or be allowed to spread out on the ground. This plant features large green leaves and thick stems covered with coarse hairs. The showy, golden yellow blooms appear early in the summer, and female flowers give way to round or spherical fruits. Young ash gourds are covered with a soft down that disappears with maturity. Fully matured gourds have a white, waxy coating covering the surface.

Field preparation:The field selected for seed production must not have been sown with ashguard in the previous season. This is done to avoid volunteer plants that cause admixture.After proper ploughing, at a spacing of 2.5 x 2 m distance take pits having 45 cm length, width and height. Ten days after that, apply 10 kg FYM and urea 30 g. Super phosphate 72 g and potash 19 g per pit. Then mix the above nutrients with soil and fill the pits and level them.

Soil and climate:Soil with neutral pH must be selected. Loam or clay loam soils are best suited. Higher organic matter will lead to production of vigorous seed.Seed is very sensitive to whether. Hence selecting the right season is necessary. Though ashgourd can grow through out the year, seed crop should be grown such that the seed matures in cool dry climate. This will facilitate proper ripening of fruits and reduce the pest and disease infection. Seasons are selected with this idea in mind. In

Botanical description :Botanically, cluster bean is known as Cyamopsis tetragonoloba (L) Taub. (2n = 2x = 14) belongs to the family Papilionaceae.

Floral biology :Cluster bean is a self-pollinated crop having about 9 percent maximum natural out crossing. The plants are normally fully fertile, a few semi-sterile ones have also been reported.

Isolation distance :Cluster bean is a self-pollinated crop. Isolation distance of 50 metres for foundation and 25 metres for certified seed is essential.

Sowing :Cluster bean can be sown twice in a year, February - March in Northern plains and December - January in Southern plains.

Seed rate : In order to sow one hectare area about 30-40 kg seed of cluster bean is required.

Nutrition : The yield of cluster bean has been maximum when the crop was applied with 40 kg nitrogen and 60 kg phosphorus per hectare. The application of micronutrient to cluster bean crop proves very beneficial. Two sprays of molybdenum at 0.15 percent at 15 and 30 days after seedlings emergence give better yield.