eChapters

I. FILL UPS

1. The process whereby seeds sprout and begin to grow is known as _____.
2. During germination of a seed, the water is absorbed through _____.
3. _____ is the onset growth of a seed often following a period of dormancy.
4. _____ is a type of germination in which cotyledons and shoot are carried above the soil level.
5. _____ is a type of germination in which the cotyledon or comparable structure remain in the soil.
6. Water moves into the tissues and cells by _____.

I. FILL UPS

1. _____ refers to lack of growth due to any external or internal cause.
2. _____ refers to a state in which viable seeds fail to germinate even when given favourable environmental conditions.
3. _____ is a condition in which seed can germinate upon absorption of water.
4. _____ is otherwise known as primary dormancy.
5. A condition that develops to prevent germination after the seed has been detached from the plant is called _____.
6. Dormancy related to the embryo is called _____.

I. FILL UPS

1. The major storage organ for cereals is _____ .
2. The major storage organ for legumes is _____.
3. The major storage organ in pine is _____.
4. The average protein percent present in soybean is _____.
5. The average oil percent present in oilpalm is _____.

I. FILL UPS

1. _____ is the stage of accumulation of maximum dry matter within the seeds.
2. The stage of attainment of physiological maturity by 80% of population is considered as _____ stage.
3. In rice, during harvestable maturity the moisture content of long duration varieties will be _____.
4. For short and medium duration varieties of rice, the moisture content will be _____.
5. Rattling sound of kernel is the physiological maturity symptom of _____.
6. The harvestable maturity indices of cotton is _____.
7. The harvestable maturity indices of bhendi is _____.

I. FILL UPS

1. Ovule moisture content at the time of fertilization is approximately _____.
2. After sexual fusion, the developing seeds begin to _____ in weight as a result of nutrient accumulation.
3. _____ is the precursor substrate for starch formation in a seed.
4. In cereals, the walls of the dead cells of the mature starchy endosperm are composed of _____ and _____.
5. In coffee and ivory nut seeds _____ is deposited in the cell wall.
6. In cereal seeds, proteins are accumulated in the _____ layer.

I. FILL UPS

1. The developing ovule is commonly attached to the placenta by the _____.
2. The scar on the ovule made where the funiculus detaches at maturity is known as the _____.
3. The point where the integuments meet at the nuclear apex is _____.
4. Opposite to the micropyle, the region of integumentary origin and attachment is called _____.
5. Between the chalaza and the hilum is an area called _____.
6. _____ is an example for species with developed perisperm.

I. FILL UPS

1. _____ is a technology that eliminates or reduces the germination capacity of the following seed germination.
2. _____ technology offers a means of preventing the unwanted flow of genes from genetically modified organisms.
3. Terminator technology is technically known as _____.
4. _____ technology is used to protect the transgenes from being pirated by researches elsewhere.
5. _____ is a inducer used to initiate the terminator gene interaction.

I. FILL UPS

1. Somatic embryo encased with artificial endosperm and protective cover is called _____.
2. The term artificial seed was coined by_____.
3. The artificial seed technology was patented by_____.
4. The most common gelling agent used for artificial seeds is_____.
5. In desiccated system, the artificial seeds are coated with _____.

I. FILL UPS

1. Development of seed without fertilization is called _____.
2. _____ is the substitution for any sexual nuclear fusion.
3. Apomitic seed will have genetic material only from the _____ plant.
4. In _____ apomixis type, the megaspore cell undergoes the usual meiotic division and forms a haploid embryo sac.
5. The process of seed formation without sexual fusion is known as _____.
6. _____ is defined as the development of embryo from some other cell of embryo sac other than egg.
7. Haploid embryo arises from the egg without fertilization is called_____.

I. FILL UPS

1. _____ is the method of propagating plants with the use of organs other than the seed and spore.
2. The word asexual, which means _____.
3. In asexual, the _____ of the male and female sexual gametes (fertilization) is not a requisite to the production of new plants.
4. In vegetative propagation, the union of the male and _____ sexual gametes (fertilization) is not a requisite.
5. _____ without fertilization is known as vegetative propagation.
6. In vegetative propagation, _____ cell division takes place.

I. FILL UPS

1. A seed is defined as a _____ or a reproductive unit formed from fertilized ovule, consisting of an embryo, reserve food and a protective cover.
2. A seed is defined as a mature ovule or a reproductive unit formed from _____ consisting of an embryo, reserve food and a protective cover.
3. A seed is defined as a mature ovule, or a reproductive unit formed from fertilized ovule, consisting of an _____, reserve food and a protective cover.
4. A seed is defined as a mature ovule or a reproductive unit formed from fertilized ovule, consisting of an embryo, _____ and a protective cover.
5. Seed acts as a carrier of _____.
6. Seed must ensure high _____ (true to type).
7. Seed must be viable and have good _____ capacity

I. FILL UPS

1. Mango fruit is a _____.
2. _____ is a fleshy fruit with a single seed enclosed by a hard, stony endocarp or pit.
3. Apple fruit is a _____.
4. _____ fruit is a drupe.
5. Grape fruit is a _____.
6. Cucumber fruit is a _____.
7. Citrus fruit is a _____.

I. FILL UPS

1. _____ is the period during which a flower is fully open and functional, in terms of pollen maturation and dispersal.
2. Flowers with _____ anthesis generally have brightly coloured flowers to attract insects, such as butterflies.
3. Flowers with _____ anthesis generally have white or less colourful flowers.
4. _____ is the mechanism, in which the stamens and pistil of a flower mature at different times.
5. The best example for protandry is _____.
6. _____ is the mechanism in which the stigma become receptive before pollen release.
7. _____ is the process by which plant pollen is transferred from the male reproductive organs to the female reproductive organs to form seeds.
8. In Bengal gram, the method of pollination is _____.
9. Red gram is _____ pollinated crop.

I. FILL UPS

1. A _____ is an unbranched, indeterminate inflorescence with pedicellate flowers along the axis.
2. A _____ is a type of raceme with flowers that do not have a pedicel.
3. An _____ is a type of raceme with a short axis and multiple floral pedicels of equal length that appear to arise from a common point.
4. Indeterminate simple inflorescences are generally called _____.
5. Determinate simple inflorescences are generally called _____.
6. A compound raceme is often called a _____.
7. _____ are umbels in which the single flowers are replaced by many smaller umbels called umbellets.
8. _____ is the pollen producing part of a flower, usually with a slender filament supporting the anther.
9. _____ is the part of the stamen where pollen is produced.
10. _____ is the ovule producing part of a flower.

Most of us consider weeds to be the troublesome, competitive, aggressive, undesirable, unsightly elements of the plant world. We hate weeds since desirable plants cultivated by us are deprived of food, water, sunlight and space by these plants. They can easily colonize an area and thrive even under non-ideal conditions of growth and may affect human welfare adversely. It is perhaps due to this that the saying, when weeds win all the people lose, has come into existence.

The terminology committee of the Weed Society of America gives the simple definition of weed as a plant growing where it is not desired. King (1974) in his book Weeds of the World observed that ‘‘a plant classed as a weed in one region where it has few, if any, uses may when growing in another region, possess some very valuable uses, or in few cases may actually be cultivated’’. For instance, Bermuda grass (Cynodon dactylon) is a highly troublesome weed in crop fields, but in village pastures, it is a much sought for forage grass. Quack grass (Agropyron repens) is a very good soil binding grass on erodable non-crop lands but it is a serious weed when it infests crop fields and orchards. Campbell (1923) considered weeds as ‘honest, independent competitors for food materials in the struggle for existence’. He pointed out that the term, weed has developed in the minds of people not according to specific qualities or by a definite concept in the mind of man, but by human caprice, e.g., corn is a cultivated crop, hence, desirable plant in a corn field. However, if a corn plant grows in a Soya bean field, it is considered a weed by the Soyabean farmer. Sometimes, two persons may differ about the weedy nature of a plant at the same place and time, e.g., water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes) is a weed for fisherman but it is a plant of aesthetic value for a city dweller.

Thus, a corollary to the above definitions of weed is that weeds are those plants, which grow out of their place, interfere with the utilization of natural resources, prolific, persistent, resistant, competitive, harmful and even poisonous in nature and can grow under adverse conditions.

Mulching is a practice of covering the surface of soil with plastics, organic and non-organic materials like straw, grasses, sands, stones (boulders), synthetic plastics, etc. to reduce evaporation and to moderate wide fluctuations in diurnal soil temperature, especially in the root zone environment. It controls external evaporability and reduces energy supply to the evaporating site by cutting off solar radiation falling on the ground. Its main function is limited to control first stage of drying, which helps in improving moisture status and reducing soil temperature (Loy and Wells, 1975), besides checking seedling mortality and improving crop stand. It also suppresses weed-flora and reduces weed competition with crop for water and nutrients making them available in greater quantities for crop plants. Moreover, mulching helps in increasing downward movement of water, and its storage deep in the profiles escapes evaporation due to reduction in thermal gradients and exchange of vapours. The effectiveness of mulches in conserving moisture has generally been found to be higher under more frequency of rainfall, drought conditions and also during early period of plant growth when canopy cover remains scanty.

India is a major exporter of vegetables with 10th position in the world. In the past, the Dexport of Indian vegetables was restricted to potatoes and fresh onions, however, now, the Government of India finds great opportunities for expanding exports of several vegetables including lettuce, fresh peppers, tomatoes, squashes, gherkins, etc. Under World Trade Organization (WTO) regime, the development of stronger seed industry and improved production technology will give India a competitive edge in global market. New opportunities and challenges are emerging every day in the dynamic and global vegetable-based industries. However, such opportunities can be harnessed only if assured quality, in terms of organic farming and reduced pesticide residues, is maintained (Shanmugasundaram, 2004).

Increasing food need, decreasing land availability and concurrently attenuating synthetic nutrients supply envisage the use of alternate supplementary inputs for the cultivation of crops. India is among the few nations where systematic farming started thousands of years ago. It was not only the source of income but was also a way of life. Agricultural activities and the techniques adapted to suit local needs and conditions. Different farming systems were followed by the farmers in different areas according to their needs and weather conditions. The produce was usually shared with other communities of the society involved in other professions. Almost all the nutrients removed by the crops were recycled to the soil directly or indirectly (Yadav and Mowade, 2005). In economic terms, the system followed by the then farming community was highly cost effective since all the inputs needed were locally available and practically no expenditure was incurred except labour. The traditional agriculture was though less productive but self-sufficient. With the advent of modern scientific discoveries, agriculture also changed its face, and with the introduction of high yielding varieties, synthetic fertilizers and effective plant protection measures through chemicals, Indian agriculture made rapid strides in the shape of Green Revolution. As an upshot of Green Revolution, the grain production increased two and a half folds in about three decades with a marginal increase in net-area under cultivation.

Many materials can be applied to the soil as source of plant nutrients but the term fertilizer is often used to refer to relatively soluble nutrient sources with a high analysis or concentration. Commercially available fertilizers supply essential elements in a variety of chemical forms but many are relatively simple inorganic salts. Advantages of commercial fertilizers are their high water solubility, immediate availability to the plants, high concentration and low price per unit of nutrient, and the uniformity and accuracy with which specific amounts of available nutrients can be applied. Since they are relatively homogeneous compounds of fixed and known composition, it is fairly easy to calculate precise application rates and attain relatively consistent performance. This is in contrast to organic nutrient sources, which are a much greater challenge to manage because of their variable composition, variable nutrient availability and patterns of nutrient release that are greatly affected by temperature, moisture and other conditions that alter biological activity.

The solubility of commercial fertilizers can sometimes be a problem since soluble nutrients may move out of farm fields when applied in excess or large rains occur soon after fertilizer application. Soluble nutrients can be lost by leaching on well-drained soils and through tile outlets or in runoff on poorly drained soils. Denitrification can cause large losses of nitrate-N from water-saturated soils in wet springs.

Increasing soil cation exchange capacity by increasing organic matter reduces the movement and loss of some nutrients, although not nitrate-N (an anion). Management practices that synchronize nutrient availability with crop demand and uptake also minimize losses. Both application timing and the amount of fertilizer applied are important. Splitting fertilizer application into several small applications rather than a single large one is especially important to limit nitrogen leaching on well-drained sandy soils. Split nitrogen applications can also reduce nitrogen losses in runoff or from denitrification on poorly drained soils. Excess nutrient applications can be eliminated or at least significantly reduced by soil testing on a regular basis, setting realistic yield goals and fertilizing accordingly, accounting for all nutrient sources such as legumes, manure and other amendments and using plant analysis as a monitoring tool for the fertilizer program.

Soil fertility and crop production can be maintained only by efficient and judicious management of nutrients addition to the soil from external sources. Of the two sources most widely used all over the world, one is organic in nature- the organic manures, simply called manures, and the other comprises the synthetic or naturally occurring chemical fertilizers, simply called fertilizers. A brief account of manures is described hereunder:

The word manure came from Middle English manuren meaning to cultivate land, and initially, from French word manoeuvre meaning hand work alluding to the work which involved manuring land. The term manure originally meant that which was worked by hand (Fr. manoeuvre), but gradually, came to apply to any process by which the soil peroperties could be improved. Prominent among such processes was that of directly applying manure to the land, manure in this sense being what is now called farmyard manure or dung, the excreta of farm animals mixed with straw or other litter. Ronald Fisher seems to have used the word manure systematically for what we would call fertilizer today.

Uses of Manure

Manure has been used for centuries as a fertilizer for farming since it is rich in nitrogen and other nutrients, which facilitate growth of the plants. Liquid manure from pig or hog operations is usually knifed (injected) directly into the soil to reduce the unpleasant odours. Manure prepared from hogs and cattle is spread on fields using a manure spreader. Due to the relatively lower level of proteins in grasses, which herbivores eat, cattle manure has a milder smell than the dung of carnivores, e.g., elephant dung is practically odourless. However, due to the quantity of manure applied to fields, odour can be a problem in some agricultural regions. Poultry droppings are harmful to plants when fresh but after a period of composting are valuable fertilizers.

The dried manure of animals has been used as fuel throughout history. Dried manure (usually known as dung) of cow was and still is an important fuel source in countries such as India, while camel dung may be used in treeless regions such as deserts.

After attaining green revolution, nutritional security is of utmost importance in the current agricultural scenario. Vegetables play a key role in providing nutritional security in the country. They are important and readily available source of mineral nutrients and vitamins and play a vital role in the financial economy of the majority of small and marginal farmers. Further, these roles are becoming more transparent in the light of agriculture diversification as the vegetables have many agro-economic advantages and can fit into varying cropping systems under diversified conditions. After China, India is a leading vegetable producer but the productivity of vegetables per unit area is very low compared to other developed countries. Poor crop stand establishment is one of the factors responsible for low productivity. Yield and productivity can be improved by using advanced technology on the field preparation, optimum sowing conditions, correct nursery practices and planting methods.

Almost all the vegetable crops are propagated by seed, except a few. Crops are raised either by direct seeding in the field or by transplanting seedlings raised in nurseries. Direct seeding is the placement of seeds at desired depth into the final location where soil environment is ideal for optimum germination and crop stand establishment. On the other side, transplanting refers to removal of actively growing seedlings from one place to another with the purpose of having them continue their growth in the new location until harvest.

The vegetable crops like peas, beans, cowpea, okra, beet leaf, spinach, fenugreek, coriander, carrot, radish, turnip, beetroot, etc. are sown directly in the field, while tomato, eggplant, hot pepper, sweet pepper, onion, leek, sweet potato, cabbage, cauliflower, broccoli, Brussels sprout, kohlrabi, kale, lettuce, celery, parsley, rhubarb, squashes, etc. are first sown in the nursery beds where seedlings are raised and then transplanted in the main field. Both direct seeding and transplanting are practiced in most of the cucurbits like gourds, cucumber, melons and pumpkin.

The directly sown vegetable crops do not respond to transplanting because their embryonic roots do not produce lateral fibrous roots after uprooting unlike transplanted crops where numerous fibrous roots are generated, thus, making the plant to absorb more nutrients.

Nursery management is indeed a very important operation in successful growing of vegetables especially those, which are raised through seedlings in properly managed nursery beds. Raising nursery from seed provides an easy and convenient way to nourish tender young seedlings in a well-managed small and compact area. The nursery area can be conveniently protected from natural hazards, seed borne diseases and insect-pests and can be well managed economically. Some of the vegetable seeds are very costly, for which it is necessary to raise nursery in the most-optimum conditions. In areas where land holdings are small (in hills), nursery raising helps in making economical use of land for about one month and provides enough time to mature for previous crop, harvesting, threshing and land preparation for next crop. Most of the vegetable crops like cabbage, cauliflower, tomato, eggplant, sweet pepper, hot pepper, onion, celery, parsley, lettuce, etc. can successfully be raised through seed by growing them in the nursery and then transplanting in the field.

“A vegetable nursery is a place or an establishment for raising or handling young vegetable seedlings until they are ready for more permanent planting.”

Nursery can be maintained either for personal or commercial purpose, and each has its own advantages and disadvantages. Seedlings raised for own planting will be true to type, sound and healthy. On the other hand, seedlings purchased from outside may not be true to type, vigorous and healthy and may not arrive at destination in due course of time.

Seed is the basic input of agriculture, and its importance has now well recognized in the food supply chain since the warranty for production could be succeeded only based on the availability of seed. Seed becomes the quality seed, on possession of specific characters, viz. germination, vigour, purity and health status, hence, seed production becomes the specified scientific technology with the foreseeing of quality and storability in addition to productivity. From time immemorial, seeds are being imposed with some management techniques for improvement in seed quality and thereby the productivity. These seed management techniques are known as seed treatments. Generally, seed treatment is the application of biological, chemical agents and physical techniques to the seed in order to obtain the benefit of plant protection, production and invigouration. Basically, seed treatments are intended to improve the quality of seeds since nothing can substitute poor quality seed, no matter how lavishly other inputs are spent on the crop established from such seeds. Even for a resource poor farmer, high quality seed would be a great advantage because it ensures the best utility of all inputs in addition to the augmentation of yield increase by 15 to 20%.

In general, seed treatment could broadly be classified into physical and physiological treatment. Physical treatment is external seed treatment, while physiological is impregnation of needy substances into the seed through various seed management techniques. Some of the germination augmenting physiological seed treatments are seed fortification, seed hardening, seed priming, dry permeation and pre-germination. In addition, some of the seeds are imposed with special treatments such as dormancy breaking treatment such as soaking in water, mechanical scarification, acid scarification, bio-scarification, scorching, warm stratification, cold stratification and electrical seed treatment. The common physical seed treatments are seed pelleting, seed coating/film coating and seed colouring. Seeds are also imposed with some other physical treatments that can act on the physiology of the seed such as irradiation, magnetic and electrical seed treatment. In addition, irrespective of seed, seeds are given with protective treatment when they are taken for storage, which are commonly termed as pesticide seed treatment. Seeds are also given with corrective treatment at their initiation reduction with seed quality characters during storage, which are termed as mid storage correction.

The importance of fruits and vegetables in human nutrition is well known. Vegetables are a rich and comparatively cheaper source of minerals and vitamins. Besides, their consumption in sufficient quantities provides taste and palatability, increases appetite and provides a fair amount of fibers. These are currently reckoned as an important adjunct for the maintenance of good health and beneficial in protecting against some degenerative diseases, thus, they form a vital part of human diet. Besides, vegetables now a day are being considered as an asset for providing a good source of income to the growers.

Vegetables originated in different parts of the world, some came from tropical or subtropical countries and others from temperate zones, some from humid areas and others from climates that are more arid. Most of the countries in the world are gifted with varied agro-climatic environments for growing an array of vegetable crops to combat the present imbalanced diet of a vast population of the world, particularly in the developing countries. Production of vegetables in developed countries is much higher, for instance in Japan, nearly 40% of the diet of the people is vegetables. To meet out the full dietary needs of the common man, to eliminate malnutrition, deficiency of minerals and vitamins and also to relieve the stress for increased production of cereals, there is a greater need for growing vegetables on larger scale. As such, for increased production of nearly 247 known vegetable crops, a sound knowledge of the various aspects of vegetable production technology, environmental stresses and constraints, techniques of raising, pre- and post-harvest technology, marketing and seed production techniques is of utmost importance. Breeding and selection of new cultivars have allowed for a greater adaptability to less favourable growing conditions than was possible in the past but the inherent agroclimatic requirements of a specific kind of vegetable have not changed materially. Time or season of planting of a particular vegetable crop is determined by its environmental requirement. Knowledge of specific agroclimatic conditions required for a particular crop could enable the grower to select the best season of planting in any particular area (Singh et al., 1991).

In view of fast development of industrial sector and rapid urbanization, the vegetable gardening of various types has great scope for providing food and nutritional security, promoting health, solving employment problem and raising the economic status of an individual and the country as a whole. In many of the developing countries, protein-energy malnutrition is the most important health problem, which has long-term ailing consequences. Iron and vitamin A deficiencies are also potent contributors towards morbidity, mortality, underweight and stunted growth of individuals. Vegetables from homestead gardens can combat these dreaded social nuisances. In many cases, indigenous vegetables, gathered or grown wild, are more nutritious than foreign high value exotic species (Drescher, 1998). Various types of vegetable farming are being practiced the world over depending on the area available and objectives for the disposal of the produce. Based on the mode of disposal, the vegetable gardening can be categorized into two types:

Olericulture, a Latin word, is used to designate the science, culture and management of vegetable crops. In India, about more than fifty vegetable crops are grown in different parts, depending on their climatic requirement. A number of vegetables have similarity in their method of cultivation, which makes the package of practices followed by the farmers for their cultivation very complicated and brings about a lot of repetition. Whichever the method is adopted for the classification of vegetables can systematize the preparation and presentation of the material to some extent and can avoid the unnecessary duplication of some of the principles and methods of vegetable cultivation. In different vegetables, different plant parts are used as food in different forms and they belong to different botanical families with varying cultural and climatic requirements but common insect-pests and diseases along with their common control measures.

Various methods may be used to classify all the vegetable crops into different categories but no single method of classification would be useful to serve the purpose for different groups of scientists like taxonomists, botanists, physiologists, horticulturists, agronomists, and breeders. Under field conditions, the classification based on cultural practices has been proved the best adaptable and very useful for the growers. Vegetable crops can be classified in the following ways for the convenience of different groups of scientist and growers:

Olericulture, a Latin word, is used to designate the science, culture and management of vegetable crops. In India, about more than fifty vegetable crops are grown in different parts, depending on their climatic requirement. A number of vegetables have similarity in their method of cultivation, which makes the package of practices followed by the farmers for their cultivation very complicated and brings about a lot of repetition. Whichever the method is adopted for the classification of vegetables can systematize the preparation and presentation of the material to some extent and can avoid the unnecessary duplication of some of the principles and methods of vegetable cultivation. In different vegetables, different plant parts are used as food in different forms and they belong to different botanical families with varying cultural and climatic requirements but common insect-pests and diseases along with their common control measures.

Various methods may be used to classify all the vegetable crops into different categories but no single method of classification would be useful to serve the purpose for different groups of scientists like taxonomists, botanists, physiologists, horticulturists, agronomists, and breeders. Under field conditions, the classification based on cultural practices has been proved the best adaptable and very useful for the growers. Vegetable crops can be classified in the following ways for the convenience of different groups of scientist and growers:

The importance of vegetables in human nutrition is now well known all over the world. Vegetables are rich and comparatively cheaper source of minerals and vitamins. Their consumption in sufficient quantities provides taste and palatability, increases appetite and provides fair amount of fibre. Besides, they provide many specific chemical substances, which are essential for growth, reproduction and for the maintenance of good health and also beneficial in protecting against some degenerative diseases (Prior and Cao, 2000; David, 2005; Elison and Levin, 2006).

Apart from their nutritive value, vegetables probably do more than any other groups of food to add colour, texture and flavour to our daily diet. Majority of the population in India is vegetarian, and thus, vegetables form an essential item of food for both the rich and the poor people. National Nutrition Monitoring Bureau (1997) surveys indicated that the daily intake of most foodstuffs in Indian households, except for cereals and millets, is much below the recommended dietary allowances (RDA). The diets provided negligible amount of protective foods. It was found that consumption of green leafy vegetables (< 10 g) and other vegetables (70-80 g) per day, which are rich source of micronutrients, are woefully inadequate. However, as per the RDA, an adult man should consume 200 g roots and tubers, 100 g green leafy vegetables and 100 g other vegetables (Table 1) in a day. In addition, fresh fruits (100 g) as available in different seasons should be consumed regularly for the prevention of chronic diseases (NIN, 1998).

Agriculture is a generic term used to include various types of farming systems, single to multiple crops under various agro-climatic conditions thereby covering crop husbandry, animal husbandry, vegetable growing, floriculture, horticulture, fishery, poultry, goat rearing, piggery, rabbit rearing, sericulture, forestry, vermi-composting, etc. Indian agriculture is a symbiosis of various production systems, a way of life or a tradition, which for the centuries have shaped the thoughts, the outlook, the culture, and the social and economic force of rural life. It is well known for its multi-functionalities of providing employment, cultural heritage, livelihood, social security, family bondage, nutritional and food security. Although agriculture is the main stay of the Indian economy and supports nearly two-third of the work force, yet this is not a highly rewarding enterprise for a large majority of farmers who hold small and marginal size holding. At the same time, the size of the land holding is on a gradual decline, while contribution of farmwomen is on an increase as men go elsewhere in search of better jobs. This sector holds and will continue to be central to all strategies of socio-economic development of the country. A farmer is a multi-purpose entrepreneur (Rajavanshi, 2007).

The basic feature of the Pre-British India was a village, which was economically a water-tight compartment fulfilling the three basic functions of economy, i.e., production, distribution and consumption, within the village community without outside world dependence, except the salt and kerosene. Every village was a self-sufficient unit with dependence on agriculture carried out by community people of different castes having the occupational specialization with interdependence, viz. jajmani system and alike.

Developments in the means of communications and the opening of Suez Canal in 1869 introduced fundamental and far-reaching changes in the social system and economic life of Indians by transforming self-sufficient village economy to new modes and means based on competition, market and price mechanism. This change was deliberated by Britishers for meeting the requirement of raw material and the diversification to tea, jute and indigo took place. Cotton also got importance but agriculture did not find place for vegetables. Famines were very common and crop production depended on monsoon rains to the large extent. Britishers developed cotton, jute and mineral trade for their vested interests.

Britishers emphasized the development of railways for better mobility of their troops, commercial crop produce and minerals but the Report of Famine Commission 1901 bitterly criticized the Government for the step-motherly treatment given to irrigation facilities as compared to railways. The irrigation policy of the Government in 19th century was determined purely from concerns for adequate returns on investment and profit was of Rs. 81 lakhs after paying 4% interest on amount invested on irrigation development in 1896-97. Irrigation Commission was established and a sum of Rs. 42 crore was spent on irrigation by 1911. By 1930, about 30 million acres were brought under canal irrigation, which was far larger than the irrigated area in any other country of the world. Even in the USA, the area under canal irrigation was two-third that of India. Vegetables cultivation did not find place in Indian agriculture and also in diet of villagers. Their cultivation remained restricted to the periphery of the urban centres for meeting the demand of upper class elites only.

Since the dawn of civilization, the human species had an intimate association with fruits, roots, nuts and other vegetables that sustained them through the ages. This mutualism continued and flourished through domestication and organized culture of horticultural crops. Pretty long before, homestead gardening had been evolved in different parts of the globe independently to become a part of tradition in almost every society. Plant domestication by all likelihoods started around the human settlements. The obvious reasons for this were man’s need, better supply of water and organic household wastes and protection against destruction or grazing by animals, that’s why the prospective horticultural enterprise of homestead gardens all over the world is still the most enduring and sustainable form of family food production system and very important micro-units for conservation of plant genetic resources. The traditional and indigenous endeavour of the tribal people for conservation of land races also noteworthy contribution from one generation to the next. Though cereals are staples for most of the world population, there has been sustained emphasis on horticultural crops, particularly vegetables, all over the world during last few decades. The possible reasons are:

18.1. INTRODUCTION

Plant genetic resources (PGRs) are the foundation for the development of a food and nutritionally secured society. Food is the foremost important to sustain life and livelihood followed by shelter and cloth. Thus, the slogan of 3Fs may be modified as, “Food, Frame (shelter) and Fibre (cloth)”. All these 3Fs we can get from PGRs. There must be balance between demands and resources. Gradually the demand for basic needs increasing. So, we have to improve the PGRs to cope with the increasing demands. PGRs are the foundation for the development of these 3Fs. India is a country rich in crop biodiversity and genetic resources. The status of Germplasm accessions in the National Gene Bank is being presented in Table 18.1.

17.1. INTRODUCTION

Yam bean is one of the adaptable, low-maintenance, and nutritious food crop grown in moderate soil. It has many synonyms, in India it is known as Mishrikand (Hindi), Keshar or Ram-kaseru or Shankalu (Bengali). The root crops produced by legumes have long recognized as important and the FAO (1979) has recommended them as a source of human nutrition. The tuber is rich in starch (15-20%), 3-4% sugar, and have considerable amount of protein (2-3%). The harvested crop keeps well for months under ambient temperature. Kale (2006) observed relatively high iron contents in storage roots (up to 130 mg/kg of storage root dry matter). It can also be used for alcohol production.

The crop is very hardy, resistant to common insect pests and diseases. Most important is that the crop is not grazed neither by goats nor cows. The crop grows well in hot-humid environment and requires long, warm frost-free growing season. A moist, light textural soil is preferred for production of tuberous roots. As a legume crop, it can be grown without nitrogen fertilizer. Under good growing condition its root nodules habour symbiotic colonies of nitrogen-fixing bacteria- Rhizobium spp. (Nielsen et al., 1998b). A season crop of yam beans can release as much as 53 tons of usable nitrogen per acre into the soil. Mycorrhyzae also associated with the crop, thus facilitating phosphorus uptake. Thus, yam bean is highly suited to the needs of small farmers, and from both an ecological and a socioeconomic perspective

16.1. INTRODUCTION

Millets are a large part of the basic diet for farm households in the world's poorest people in the poorest countries. The production of millets on average for the 5 years have been given in Table 16.1. Top consuming countries are India, Nigeria, Niger and China. However, just because a country is a top global consumer does not mean that millet is a significant source of calories for them. India and China are rank as the 1st and 4th consumers of millet, but due to their population size they rank 11th and 38th in per-capita consumption, accordingly.

Millet particularly the finger millet) is an excellent dietary source of calcium, iron, manganese, and methionine-  an amino acid lacking in the diets of hundred of millions of the poor who live on starchy foods such as cassava, plantain, polished rice, and maize meal. Millet use is diverse, including in cereals (including porridge and kasha), soups, breads and stuffings, fermented beverages, and baby food.

15.1. INTRODUCTION

Finger millet Eleusine indica (L.) is an Old World cereal grass commonly known as ‘finger millet’, is one of the staple food crop especially in India and Africa, which is widely grown in the arid regions of Asia and Africa and important minor millet grown in India.  Eleusine, the generic name, is obtained after the “Eleusine” the Greek Goddess of cereals and the common name finger millet is derived from the finger like branching of the panicle. It is also know by Goosegrass, Yardgrass, Wiregrass, Silver Crabgrass, Crowfoot Grass. It is commonly known as Finger millet in English, Kelvaragu in Tamil, Nachani in Marathi etc. Some Indian varieties of finger millet are Kempu ragi, Ragalli shivalli, Pichakaddi etc.  This crop is one among the hardiest crops which can with stand severe drought conditions and can also grow well under scanty rainfall condition. However with good irrigation facilities the yield of finger millet matches with crops like rice. Finger millet seeds remain free of pests and insects for a long duration extending up to 50 years hence serving as a food reserve in case of tough situations like famine.

14.1. INTRODUCTION

Barley (Hordeum vulgare L. emend. Bowden) is one the most important ancient crops and played very important role in the development of agriculture and human civilization. It has also played crucial role in the progress of science of agriculture, physiology, genetics, plant breeding and malting and brewing science. It is the fourth most cereal crop after rice, wheat and maize in acreages and production in the world.  It is grown and used all around the world in many countries and has fed livestock, poultry and people since ancient time.  Barley was domesticated about 10,000 years ago in the Fertile Crescent of the Near East. Fertile Crescent is considered the first of at least seven primary centres of agriculture origin in the world (Smith, 1998; Baik and Ulrich, 2008). Barley is best known around the world as a feed grain and a premier grains for malting and brewing. When most people think of composition of beer, they only think of barley over other cereals. Although utilization of barley for food is relatively low as compared to other cereals today, throughout its history barley has remained an important and major food source poor people living in Western and Eastern Asia and Northern and Eastern Himalayan region nation like Tibet, Nepal and in Northern and Eastern Africa (Newman and Newman, 2006, 2008). Moreover, there has been resurgence of interest and use of barley as food primarily in the developed world due to an increasing emphasis on incorporating the diversity in consumption of whole grain in people’s diets due to its health benefits.

13.1. INTRODUCTION

Pearl millet crop has a wide adaptability to local environments. It is hardy and can be grown in areas which are very hot and dry and on soils too poor for sorghum. Pearl millet is considered more efficient in utilization of soil moisture and has a higher level of heat tolerance than even sorghum and maize. It is adapted to warm and dry climate but most of the area under the crop is in drought- prone areas of the world. In these areas, pearl millet is usually grown with limited inputs, sparse rainfall, low soil fertility, and also face disease and pest problems, with correspondingly poor yields.
 
The low average yields are primarily a result of the hot, dry conditions where pearl millet is mostly grown, rather than pearl millet plant’s capability. Pearl millet hybrids grown under better conditions yield 3000 to 4000 kg/ha compared to 300 to 800 kg/ha when moisture and soil fertility become limiting factors. A majority of the subsistence farmers who typically cultivate this crop are unable to take advantage of high yield potential because they have limited options for improving their management practices. Pearl millet production can be increased through growing varieties/hybrids with improved tolerance to drought, diseases and responding to higher rates of fertilizer applications.

12.1. INTRODUCTION

Sorghum [Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench] is an important food/feed/fodder crop in more than 90 countries across the world and it is one of the cheapest sources of energy and micronutrients (Reddy et al., 2009; Ashok Kumar et al., 2011). Considerable efforts have been made to improve sorghum productivity through genetic enhancement and crop production and protection research all over the globe. Sorghum being an often cross-pollinated crop with cross pollination up to 2-15% depending on genotype and environment (House 1985), initially, pure-lines were the target products although phenomenon of heterosis was demonstrated in sorghum as early as in 1927 (Conner and Karper, 1927). Predominant self-pollinating nature of sorghum with tiny florets with single seed per emasculation and pollination prevented commercial exploitation of heterosis for commercial sorghum production. However, the discovery of a stable and heritable cytoplasmic-nuclear male-sterility (CMS) mechanism (Stephens and Holland, 1954), enabling large-scale, economic hybrid seed production gave a fillip to the exploitation of heterosis since early 1960s. The first commercial sorghum hybrid CSH 1 was released in 1964 in India. Using CMS mechanism, large number of commercial hybrids have been developed and released/marketed for commercial cultivation in all sorghum growing regions with strong Indian National Agricultural Research Systems (NARS).

11.1. INTRODUCTION

Sorghum [Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench] is the fifth most important cereal crop and is the dietary staple of more than 500 million people in over 90 countries, primarily in the developing world. It is grown on 47 m ha in 104 countries in Africa, Asia, Oceania, and the Americas. Among those, USA, Nigeria, India, Mexico, Sudan, China, and Argentina are the major sorghum producers globally. Sorghum grain is mostly used directly for food (55%), and is consumed in the form of porridges (thick or thin) and flat breads; however sorghum is also an important feed grain (33%), especially in Australia and the Americas. Stover (crop residue after grain harvest) is an important fodder source to both milch and draft animals in mixed crop-livestock systems. Sorghum is also a good source of green fodder due to its quick growth and high yield and quality of biomass. Of late, sorghum with sugar-rich juicy stalks (called sweet sorghum) is emerging as an important biofuel crop. Thus sorghum is a unique crop with multiple uses as food, feed, fodder, fuel and fiber. Sorghum is generally grown in rainy season (spring) but in India it is grown in both rainy and postrainy seasons. The postrainy season sorghum grain is prized for its food value (Reddy et al., 2009).

10.1. INTRODUCTION

The development of hybrid breeding methodology in maize and its successful application to exploit heterosis is considered as significant achievement of plant breeding in the present century. 
Even though Beal (1880) suggested for commercial cultivation of F1 varietal hybrids. It was Shull (1909) on the basis of his experiment gave pure line method of corn breeding, which laid foundation for present day hybrid breeding. Pure line methods of maize breeding involve three steps. 
    
·    Large scale inbreeding to obtain many homozygous/nearly homozygous inbred lines. 
    
·    Testing the selected inbred lines in all possible crosses.
    
·    Practical utilization of inbred lines in seed production of single cross hybrids.

9.1. INTRODUCTION

Maize (Zea mays L. ssp. mays 2n = 20), known as corn in some countries is an important cereal crop of the world. The scientific name from Greek word ‘Zea’ for a kind of grain and West Indian word ‘malnis’ for corn. Maize was domesticated in Mesoamerica and hence formed the Mesoamerican people’s identity and later it spread throughout American continent. Maize is widely cultivated throughout the world and a greater weight of maize is produced each year than any other cereal grain. USA produces almost half of the world’s harvest (42.5%) and other top producing countries include China, Brazil, Mexico, Argentina, India and France. During the year 2007, worldwide maize productivity was around 4970 kg per ha. Maize is the only cereal that can be harvested and used at various stages of plant development. The crop can be cultivated on a wide area from 580 N to 400 S from below sea level to altitudes higher than 3000 m and in areas with 250 mm to more than 5000 mm of rainfall per year (Shaw, 1988, Dowswell et al., 1996).

8.1. INTRODUCTION

Exploitation of heterosis through development of hybrid wheat is one of the most attractive options to increase wheat productivity. The efforts on developments of hybrid wheat started in early fifties (Kihara, 1951; Fukasawa, 1953) through cytoplasmic male sterility system (Livers and Heyne, 1968). Later, in seventies, research works from public as well as private sectors have shifted their efforts to the use of gametocide (chemically hybridizing agent-CHA), and a number of gametocides were tested in eighties. In wheat, heterosis is especially interesting for grain yield and for the resistance of plants to both parasites and climate risks (Rousset, 1986). With this advantage in mind, the first phase of hybrid wheat development started in the United States in 1975. Chronological events of wheat hybrid development have been given in Table 8.1. Subsequently, a number of hybrid wheat has been released in countries such as Argentina, France, and United States (Pickett, 1993).

7.1. INTRODUCTION

The cultivation of wheat (Triticum spp.) reaches far back into history. Wheat was one of the first domesticated food crops and for 8000 years has been the basic staple food of the major civilizations of Europe, West Asia and North Africa. Today, wheat is grown on more land area than any other commercial crop and continues to be the most important food grain source for humans. Its production leads all crops, including rice, maize and potatoes.

Wheat is special in several ways. It is grown on more than 240 million ha, larger than for any other crop, and world trade is greater than for all other crops combined. The raised bread loaf is possible because the wheat kernel contains gluten, an elastic form of protein that traps minute bubbles of carbon dioxide when fermentation occurs in leavened dough, causing the dough to rise (Hanson et al., 1982). It is the best of the cereal foods and provides more nourishment for humans than any other food source. Wheat is a major diet component because of the wheat plant’s agronomic adaptability, ease of grain storage and ease of converting grain into flour for making edible, palatable, interesting and satisfying foods.

6.1. INTRODUCTION

After introduction of TN-1 (Taichung Native-1), Jaya, IR8 and other high yielding rice varieties during sixties and seventies, the productivity increased drastically and remained at plateau since last three decades. With no possibility to extend land area for rice cultivation in Asia, there is some scope for production advantages in rice through further expansion of high yielding varieties coverage in Pakistan, Thailand and India, expansion of area under irrigation in Bangladesh, Cambodia, India, Myanmar, the Philippines, Thailand and Vietnam, or expansion of boro rice in Bangladesh, India and Myanmar. Thus, utilization of heterosis has become one of the main methods for increasing yield. Hybrid is one of the viable and proven technologies to improve rice productivity. China is the first successful country to produce hybrid rice in appreciable quantity. This technology not only helped China to increase the rice productivity, but also to save land for crop diversification. The 'National Food Security Mission' has been launched envisaging increase of annual rice production by 10 million tons by 2011-'12. Here, hybrid rice may play important role to achieve the assigned target.

5.1. INTRODUCTION
     
Rice is an important provider of nourishment for the world’s population. Indian scented rice, ‘Basmati’ has dominated the domestic and international market for aroma. Aromatic rice is an important commodity worldwide and command premium price over non-scented varieties. Most of the trade in aromatic rice is from India, Pakistan and Thailand. Bulk of aromatic rice from India and Pakistan consist of Basmati, while Thailand is the supplier of Jasmine rice. The Indian subcontinent has the Natural Gift of basmati rice that has been accepted as the best scented, long and slender grain in the world markets and gets high price. In addition to Basmati, many local landraces are grown traditionally, which excel in aroma, grain quality and cooking quality. Most of these genotypes are short bold to medium bold grain and hence not traded in the international market. However, in the domestic market its demand is greater than the Basmati rice. These are mainly used for special preparation, such as Khir in Bengal.

4.1. INTRODUCTION

Rice (Oryza sativa) is the major food crop in the world. Nearly 40% of the world population consumes rice as the major staple food. Most of the people, who depend on rice as primary food, live in the less developed countries.  Archeological evidence on rice in India dates back to 1500-1000 B.C. Since the dawn of civilization, rice has served humans as a life-giving cereal in the humid regions of Asia and, to a lesser extent, in West Africa. Introduction of rice into Europe and the America has led to its increased use in human diets. There are 42 rice producing countries throughout the world but China and India are major rice production centers. Rice is grown in wide range of agro-climatic conditions ranging from mountainous (Jammu) lands to low land delta areas (Sundarban), spanning an area from 53° latitude north to 35° south of the world but about 90% of the crop is grown and consumed in Asia. Rice provides fully 60% of the food intake in Southeast Asia and about 35% in East Asia and South Asia. The highest level of per capita rice consumption (130-180 kg per year, 55-80% of total caloric source) takes place in Bangladesh, Cambodia, Indonesia, Laos, Myanmar (Burma), Thailand, and Vietnam (Kenneth and Kriemhild, 2000). In many cultures of the world rice is the central part of people’s life and culture. Rice is an excellent food and is an excellent source of carbohydrates and energy.

3.1. INTRODUCTION

Heterosis is the superiority of the F1s over the parental forms. The term heterosis was first used by Shull (1910) to describe the interpretation of increased vigour, size, fruitfulness, speed of development, resistance to diseases and insect pests or some other characteristics manifested by out-breeding organisms as compared to corresponding inbreds. Exploitation of heterosis is gaining momentum due to increased yield, quality, uniformity, better desirable traits and management of biotic stresses. The future of most of the economic crops will be for hybrids for sustainable development of higher economic returns to the farmers. Sustainable increase in area under hybrid crops is witnessed by its popularity and adoption by the farmers.

2.1. INTRODUCTION

Pollination is the process of mating in plants, that is, the transfer of pollen from anther to stigma. In flowers, pollen delivered to the stigma through a wide range of mechanisms that ensure an appropriate balance in the genetic makeup of the species. Most plant species have evolved ways to ensure an appropriate degree of interchange of genetic material between individuals in the population, and cross-pollination is the normal type of pollination. Plants benefit most by being pollinated by other individuals because this broadens the genetic characteristics of individual plants. As a result, they are more adaptable to necessary changes. Self- and often-pollinated crops evolved from cross pollinated crops.

Pollination followed by fertilization is important in agriculture, particularly for the crops whose economic part is either fruit or seed, such as, rice, wheat, fruit vegetables etc. For other crops, these events are also important for production of seed for cultivation of next generation, for examples, green vegetables (amaranth, palak, cabbage, cauliflower etc).

The study of pollination brings together many disciplines, such as botany, plant breeding, horticulture, entomology, and ecology. The pollination process as an interaction between flower and vector was first addressed in the 18th century by Christian Konrad Sprengel. It is important in horticulture and agriculture, because fruiting is dependent on fertilization, which is the end result of pollination.

1.1. INTRODUCTION

During the last 30 years, India’s food production nearly doubled from 102 million tons. Almost all of this increase resulted from higher yield in all food grains rather than increase in area, particularly wheat, rice, maize and some extent in pulses and oil seed crops. This has contributed to a significant reduction in poverty from 55% to 26% (Dar, 2011). The increase in yield is the result of scientific innovations in India and other parts of the world and their adoption in India.

In 1871, the Government of India created Department of Agriculture. The impact of these departments in enhancement of crop productivity was not remarkable. Later, the Government of India established the Imperial Agricultural Research Institute in 1905 in Pusa, Bihar to enhance the agricultural research and education. Later, the headquarter of Imperial Agricultural Research Institute has been shifted to New Delhi in the year 1936. The name of the institute has been changed in 1946 as Indian Agricultural Research Institute. To boost the agricultural Research activities, Imperial Council of Agricultural Research was established in the year 1929, subsequently, the name of Imperial Council of Agricultural Research has been changed to its present form of Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) in 1946. Since then, ICAR playing significant role in all sphere of agricultural research, education and extension. A number of varieties and hybrids of different crops have been developed and released by the scientists of ICAR. To test the outcome of the agricultural research, ICAR has started All India Coordinated Crop Improvement Projects, which provide an efficient channel for multilocation testing of newly evolved strains.

INTRODUCTION

High crop productivity depends on quality of seed as without good quality seed even if we apply manure, Plant protection measure and other cultural practices it is not possible to produce good quality seed. So the basic seed used for sowing must be healthy and good in quality. It is different from commercial production as it need proper care, good quality basic seed, timely cultural operations, thinning, roguing, timely application of pesticides and fertilizers and maintenance of seed quality through inspections. 
Seed production requires technical skill to achieve all the above advantages for which the best approaches Compact Area Approach or Seed Village Concept.
It is selection of compact area by organizing the seed farmers in the selected area. The selected area must be fertile and suitable for reproduction of good quality seed such areas can be organized for self and cross pollinated crops (Groundnut, Paddy, Pulses, Sorghum) especially for the varietal seed production. But the variety should be one another for whole of the selected area.

Advantages of Seed Village Concepts

1. Isolation and Roguing

For maintenance of genetic purity of the crop it requires isolation and proper rouging. This can be achieved in the compact area programme, as it will be the mutual benefit to the farmers who are concentrating growing on single variety on compact area.