eChapters

Plant breeding is a revered custom that proceeds with the most common way of creating further developed plant cultivars, which traces all the way back to the beginning of agriculture . People started to observe levels of greatness among the plants in their fields not long after the underlying regulations of cereal grains, from which they put away the seeds of the best to develop new harvests. Early plant-reproducing advancements were the trailblazers to such simple choice methodologies. Individuals from the whole way across the world investigated and developed almost 7000 assortments of food plants during Breeding 1.0, which started quite a while back. Breeding stage 2.0 began in the late nineteenth and mid 20th hundreds of years when an inbreeding discouragement was found. During this time, many advances in plant breeding were made in the study of reproducing itself, like duplicated field preliminaries, controlled intersections, factual examinations, formal exploratory plans, crossover breeding, family-based appraisals of reproducing values, and exact yield estimation at scale (e.g., with Muldrow joins). Breeding 3.0 came to around a long time back, when sub-atomic markers and genomic information started to enhance phenotypic information. Breeding 4.0 is quickly drawing nearer, with immense omics information and the fast advancement of informatics innovations. Starting from the start of the plant breeding cycle, beginning from crop training, new methodologies interceded by various mechanical upheavals are being advanced in the science consistently to build the speed, exactness, and Precision in plant reproducing. In the previous 10 years, this science has proactively brought the green upheaval by creating semi-predominate, supplement responsive, and crossover cultivars. In any case, taking into account the populace development, diminishing arable land, and Climate changes, these have requested more exact, high throughput moves toward that can intervene to foster harvest cultivars at a more prominent speed, with higher exactness, and accuracy. In such manner, the field of Artificial brainpower has as of late arisen, which has been recommended to have unprecedented potential to help with breeding Climate versatile Precisionyields. Climate strong harvests keep up with or increment crop yields

In provincial areas of non-industrial nations, over 70% of the populace actually relies upon agriculture . Be that as it may, financial emergencies, informal land distribution and Climate change issues have ruined endeavored gains in agricultural efficiency and related rustic improvement results. Innovation pushed advancement has generally driven farming to the brink of another improvement that can influence plant variety and yield, yet additionally climatological and financial results. The idea of economical agriculture has become progressively advocated as examination and cultivating networks accept that efficiency with natural and social outcomes should be sensibly adjusted. Agriculture of created countries has basically benefitted of this idea overall during the 1990 s. To find success around the world, broad exploration should be led not just for enormous scope farmers in created countries yet additionally for limited scope ranches in agricultural countries. Climatic smart agriculture saves biodiversity by taking on sound, multifunctional, and multi-trimming approach through plan arranged spatial preparation and stream among them. Here, a spatiotemporal information driven worldview for detecting observing and coordinating agricultural Climate has been proposed to upgrade the utilization of Climatic smart agriculture framework. As an excursion towards maintainable coordinated cultivating, computerized farming offers different open doors for universal systems administration and computerized resources through information sway. The exploration issues are basically worried in the combination of different information archives with administration information, open access information, institutional information, and space explicit information from end clients. Because of the mix of heterogeneous sensors and advanced stages in agriculture, the information typology is getting more extravagant, and how much information is continually expanding.
Feedstocks assume a significant part in the comprehensive advancement of non-industrial nations that depend vigorously on agriculture. It has been standard that farmers must be actually present on their fields during each

The stability of agriculture all over the planet and the accessibility of food are both signi?cantly affected by Climate change. Thus, it is desperately important to create and execute Climate -resilient farming techniques and advancements that can help farmers in acclimating to the e?ects of Climate change. It should be finished right away. It examines the issues welcomed on by Climate change, fundamentals of sustainable agriculture, and the instruments and strategies that can be utilized to expand farming’s protection from Climate change. This part essentially talks about Climate -friendly creature farming, viable water system frameworks, weather conditions checking and determining, crops that can endure dry spell and flooding, coordinated bug control, and sustainable power sources. To make sustainable more Climate change-safe, this part additionally talks about the need to empower feasible land-use rehearses and to make innovative work ventures. By using these innovation and methods, farmer might add to the maintainability and versatility of the food framework.
As a result of increasing temperatures and diminishing precipitation because of Climate change, farming is enduring enormously all over the planet. This is especially evident in India, where the greater part of the populace is utilized in farming. The effect of Climate change is perhaps of the main issue the world is at present encountering. The impacts of Climate change are felt and found in each part of society, including farming. Utilizing harmless to the ecosystem circular agriculture is critical now like never before as the total populace develops. One of these strategies is farming that is circular agriculture (CRA). Its central goal is to adjust cultivating practices to an evolving environment. Consistently, new people enter the earth. To take care of the growing populace, the land is feeling the squeeze to give more food, fiber, and fuel. Consistently, new people are brought into the world. Thus, the land is feeling the squeeze to create more food, fiber, and fuel to take care of the populace that is extending. As well as expanding crop efficiency, more Climate tough agricultural methods would likewise work on the soundness of the dirt and the biological system

Agriculture 4.0, otherwise called “Digital Agricultural Revolution”, addresses a change in outlook in agriculture, utilizing state of the art innovations to improve different parts of cultivating tasks. These innovations include the Internet of Things (IoT), Artificial brainpower (Artificial intelligence), Huge Information, distributed computing, Cloud computing, Decision Support System (DSS), high level detecting innovation, and independent robots. Sensors and mechanical technology assume a urgent part in gathering fundamental field information, which is then sent to a neighborhood or cloud server by means of IoT innovation for capacity, handling, and examination. Large information and Artificial intelligence-based strategies can be utilized to change over this information into significant experiences. To work with client connection and informed independent direction, a DSS outfits clients with the fundamental devices to improve the agricultural framework and embrace proper activities.
AI (ML), a subset of Artificial intelligence, has shown extraordinary potential in upgrading different parts of agriculture 4.0. It very well may be characterized as a PC program or framework that can learn explicit errands without being expressly modified to do so. An interaction includes the utilization of a PC to go with choices in light of various information inputs. For this situation, information means a bunch of models. Marked information is frequently utilized for managed learning undertakings (where the model gains from named models), and unlabeled information may be utilized for solo learning assignments (where the model tracks down examples and designs in the information).
ML for sure advantage from a lot of information to accomplish significant exactness in their errands. With regards to farming, acquiring immense and various information can be at times testing yet crucial for the outcome of ML models. IoT sensors are instrumental in gathering a different scope of farming information as they can be decisively sent across fields to catch pertinent data with respect to, for example, soil conditions, Climate factors, crop wellbeing, and animals’ measurements. The inescapable reception of IoT innovation works with constant and continuous information procurement, empowering

Artificial brainpower (Artificial Intelligence) is quite possibly of the quickest developing innovation in this cutting edge world. Artificial intelligence is presently broadly utilized in different enterprises going from the improvement of mechanical technology to the observing of natural issues. Computer based intelligence innovation has evident extensions in medical services gadgets, self driving vehicles, satellite imaging, scene planning, Climate change checking, also medical services frameworks. Artificial intelligence has heightened the improvement of mechanical technology across the globe that has made the life very simpler and added to a greatly improved existence of prosperity. Artificial intelligence interceded robot of a few areas including farming will create great quality items with more positive effects on Climate. Artificial intelligence utilizes various Smart sensors that cycle information progressively with higher precision. Consequently, Artificial intelligence has upgraded the presentation of any gadget to a few folds with more prominent reasonableness and Precision in their results. Computer based intelligence with Smart sensors has lead to the improvement of a cutting edge innovation called as Internet of Things (IoT). IoT is center of remote frameworks and Artificial intelligence manages information progressively and creates suitable results. This innovation has been taken on in pretty much every area of science and examination. IoT based advanced advancements can possibly create inventive models for improved creation of buyer items including agro-items.
Agriculture is fundamental piece of people local area. It is overhauled with time to increment rural production. Present day advancements has additionally been utilized in farming, agriculture, also ranger service for better observing of plant development, sicknesses, and bug populace. Artificial intelligence and IoT have various expanding extensions in farming to settle different issues such as soil conditions, Climate status, bother discovery, assurance of collecting time, etc. Likewise computer based intelligence and IoT offers fantastic extensions for continuous observation of temperature, dampness, contamination, soil quality, water content, radiation, and others. Brilliant

Smart farming, otherwise called smart agriculture, uses progressed agriculture advancements to improve ranch the farm management. By consolidating Industry 4.0 advancements, Precision farming achieves doable outcomes like extend production, resource insurance, and lessened petroleum derivative result. Internet of Things (IoT) accepts a fundamental part in Smart farming, by Precision agriculture to screen and deal with things, as a matter of fact. Information examination is in like manner essential for isolating huge encounters from the colossal proportion of data created by IoT devices. The reconciliation of present day modern digital technology has change into smart farming as information empowered and information driven activity. After affiliation, further examination of each IoT and data analytics frameworks in the agricultural region can be positive.
The total population is predicted to increase by 10 billion in 2050, by enhancing interest for agricultural goods, and notable food. This has brought about a developing interest supply befuddle. Issues including restricted assets, natural changes, and work deficiencies increment the jumble, endangering food security and agricultural production. To defeat these worries, farming should be feasible and utilize state of the art innovation. One important choice is “smart farming,” that attempt to increased food productivity by meeting the population demand in a sustainable manner. This is steady with the Assembled Countries’ Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), which hold back nothing security utilizing reasonable ways.
Smart farming strategy for agriculture business had changed Ancient farming into smart agriculture. Ancient times, human cultivated the soil to provide food for livelihood. Such activity is known as agriculture, and it follow a long path between agriculture 1.0 to agriculture 4.0. Producers employed agricultural implements including pitchforks and sickles for cultivation throughout the 17th century, a period called as Agriculture 1.0. Farming practices, a huge number of workers are needed to conduct agricultural tasks. Moreover, agricultural

In the earlier chapter the major soil vulnerability namely, water and wind erosion, depletion of soil organic matter, loss of plant nutrients, salinity, alkalinity, acidity, pollution and contamination, compaction, sealing, crusting, water-logging, aridity, landslide and abandoned mines were described. In this chapter two more parts, Importance of remote sensing (RS) and geographical information system (GIS) in soils and Watershed management are also included after seeing their importance in agriculture and soils. Restoration means that by various actions or processes to return something to its original owner, site, place, or condition. In this context our aim is to restore our mother soil from various vulnerabilities by different actions and processes to its natural and original condition up to the maximum possible extent. Management is defined as the scientific methods to attain targeted production through planning, organising, training and fixing targets for employees. Therefore, after the restoration, soils should be managed according to scientific method of action by scientifically selected and trained staff to perform the assigned responsibilities, effectively, efficiently and rapidly within stipulated period. On these guidelines restoration and management of vulnerabled soils is described here,

Vulnerability of Soils

Soil vulnerability, Soil degradation, soil vulnerability index

Water and wind erosion, depletion of soil organic matter, loss of plant nutrients, salinity, alkalinity, acidity, pollution and contamination, compaction, sealing, crusting, water-logging, aridity, lowering of water table, over grazing, deforestation, landslide, loss and change in soil biodiversity, Abandoned mines etc.

Soil vulnerability, Soil Degradation, Soil Vulnerability Index

The terms vulnerable and vulnerability are now bites of every one and used for everything. Vulnerable means to the possibility of attack or harm by any mean. Human beings are vulnerable to Covid-19, computers are vulnerable to virus, softwares are vulnerable to hackers and attackers to control system, environment is vulnerable to pollution. Vulnerabilities refer to the lack of ability to resist the effects of the aggressive environment. Soils are vulnerable to numerous threats like water and wind erosion, depletion of soil organic matter, loss of plant nutrients, salinity, alkalinity, acidity, pollution and contamination, compaction, sealing, crusting, water-logging, aridity, lowering of water table, over grazing, deforestation, landslide, loss and change in soil biodiversity etc. However, this book will describe some of the most pertinent vulnerabilities for soils.

Physical Properties of Soil

Physical properties of soil have many important roles in the crop production. The basic requirements for germination, seedling emergence and root development are adequate moisture and aeration, optimum temperature and absence of mechanical hindrance. After germination the further development of plant is also governed by physical conditions of soil. Soil texture, soil structure, soil density, soil consistence, soil water, soil air, soil temperature and soil colour are main physical properties of soils also affecting mechanical behaviour of soils. These are described here.

1. Soil Texture

The weathering divides larger particles of rocks and minerals in to the smaller ones. This process goes continuously. Thus, particles of different sizes ranging from large fragments of rocks to the very fine clay minerals are found in soil. However, for texture particles less than 2mm diameter is considered. The relative amount of these particles indicates the soil type also. Such as sandy soils contain more amounts of coarse particles i.e., sand and clayey soils are rich in fine particles. The rock and mineral particles having diameter less than 2.0 mm and come between specifies size are called as soil separates. International society of soil science (ISSS) and United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) systems are Generally, followed to classify the soil separates. This classification is given in table 3.1.

Genesis of Soil

World’s geography is very widely diversified in relief showing various features like mountains and hills covered with snow and trees, glaciers, higher altitudes to plain to lowest valleys, forests to barren lands, fertile fields to waste lands, plateaus, deltas, swamps, lowlands, deserts etc. Temperature varies from arctic cold to scorching hot of equator, Rainfall from aridity to per humidity. All these situations and conditions under different sets of combinations generate and develop numerous types of soil from a single type of parent material. Therefore, many types of soils may develop at a smaller area.

Physical, chemical and biological weathering processes disintegrate and decompose various rocks and minerals to make asymmetrical soil parent material. This parent material is converted in to the soil profile by soil forming processes in the presence of soil forming factors. Soil genesis is defined as mode of formation of the soil from the parent material due to the action of soil forming factors and processes. Parent material, Factors of soil formation and Processes of soil formation, are three main part of soil genesis. These are described here:

1. Parent Material,

2. Classification of parent material,

3. Factors of soil formation,

4. Processes of soil formation,

5. Types of soil forming processes.

This chapter presents a birds’ eye view of the soil to develop the interest among the readers to know more about the fundamental concepts of soil.

Soil is a major determinant of terrestrial ecosystems and helps in the distribution of land flora and fauna. Soils are sources, transformers and stores of plant nutrients. Soils are the recycling places of plant and animal residues and wastes. Soils are also the screen and filter of pollutants in many ways, forms and degrees. Soils are the main link and recharger of hydrological cycle. Soils influence radiant heat exchange, temperature change and land surface reflection characteristics. Soils are important sources and sinks of biogeochemical cycles of carbon dioxide, methane, nitrogen oxides and sulphur dioxide. Soil is used in buildings, roads, brick kiln, naturopathy etc. Soils are good record of past climatic conditions and human activities, as they have some stable features originated from the interactions of climate, organisms, relief, parent material and time. Soil provides nutrients, water, air, heat and mechanical support to arable plants to produce the food, fodder, fibre, fuel and other plant products for human and animals. Mainly the soil is studied as a natural body and as a medium for plant growth.

7.1. Summary

The present research had been carried out to study the social ecology of arsenic contamination in groundwater; factors, perception and impact on life and livelihood of the selected village of West Bengal and in the end the comparison is made. The study had been conducted at village Mitrapur in the Haringhata block of West Bengal. A pilot study was conducted to understand the area, its people, institution, communication and extension system of these states.

An exhaustive list of respondents was prepared critically with the help of some villagers. From the list, 70 respondents from the village were selected for the study through a non-random snowball sampling method. The primary data were collected with the help of a structured interview schedule by following the personal interview method. The secondary data were collected from our departmental library, internet, Department of Agriculture, West Bengal, Bidhan Chandra Krishi Viswavidyalaya etc. for establishing the conceptual framework of the study.

Three types of Issues are Covered in this Study

• The influence of social, cultural, and/or economic variables on how drinking water poisoned with arsenic affects people’s life, notably their health (for example socio-economic patterns of illness and social),

• Social factors influencing people’s response: especially in relation to other priorities, perceptions of arsenic, and social roles and relationships.

This chapter deals with the findings of the study along with the discussion based on the analysis. This study tried to represent its findings as per the objectives of the study. At the end of this chapter, interrelation has been made, an explanation has been tried to put out down and an attempt has been done to reveal the cause behind it. The results and their pertaining discussion are presented according to the specific objectives of the study.

Research methodology is a way of explaining how a researcher intends to carry out their research. It’s a logical, systematic plan to resolve a research problem. A methodology details a researcher’s approach to the research to ensure reliable, valid results that address their aims and objectives. It encompasses what data they’re going to collect and where from, as well as how it’s being collected and analyzed. The deliberation on the methodology has been made to understand the concept, methods and techniques which are utilized to design the study, collection of information, analysis of data and interpretation of the f indings for the revelation of truths and formulation of theories. This chapter deals with the method and procedure used in the study and consists of eight main parts

• Locale of research

• Pilot study.

• Sampling Design.

• Empirical measurement of the Independent and Dependent variable

• Preparation of interview Schedule.

The research setting is an important component of the research methodology. Research setting refers to the detailed information of an area where the study was conducted. The research setting can be seen as the physical, social, and cultural site in which the researcher conducts the study. In qualitative research, the participants are observed in their natural environments with a primary focus on meaning-making. The study area generally consists of a particular geographical area viz. a state, district, block, or gram panchayat area selected according to the benefit of the investigator who possesses adequate knowledge regarding the location, communication facility, the period of study, the availability of resources, etc. of the locality so that he can easily approach every corner of the area for data collection. Additionally, to comprehend people’s knowledge, attitudes, and behaviour more easily, investigators must have a fundamental understanding of their socio-demographic backgrounds. It is the environment within which studies are run that has important consequences for experimental design, the type of data that can be collected and the interpretation of results.

Arsenic contamination of groundwater is a form of groundwater pollution that is often due to naturally occurring high concentrations of arsenic in deeper levels of groundwater. The Ganges Delta’s usage of deep tube wells for water delivery has raised awareness of the issue because it has led to widespread arsenic poisoning in significant numbers of people. During the weathering of rocks and minerals, which is followed by subsequent leaching and runoff, arsenic (As) is released into the soil and groundwater. Additionally, anthropogenic sources can transfer it into the soil and groundwater. Six West Bengal districts with a combined area of 34000 km2 and a population of 30 million have been determined to have groundwater levels of arsenic over the WHO maximum allowable limit of 0.05 mg l1. (Alam et al.,2002)

At present, 37 administrative blocks by the side of the river Ganga and adjoining areas are affected. Areas affected by arsenic contamination in groundwater are all located in the upper delta plain and are mostly in the abandoned meander belt. More than 800 000 people from 312 villages/wards are drinking arsenic-contaminated water and amongst them, at least 175 000 people show arsenical skin lesions. Thousands of tube well water in these six districts have been analysed for arsenic species. Hair, nails, scales, urine, and liver tissue analyses show elevated concentrations of arsenic in people drinking arsenic-contaminated water for a longer period. Arsenic comes from a geological source. Only a few soil strata have high arsenic contents, which are determined to be linked to iron-pyrites according to investigations of bore hole silt. Arsenical skin lesions in various areas cause a variety of societal issues. (Das et al.,1996)

Arsenic contamination is one of the serious concerns for public health throughout the world. During the weathering of rocks and minerals, which are followed by subsequent leaching and runoff, arsenic (As) is released into the soil and groundwater. Additionally, human sources can transfer it into the soil and groundwater. Depending on the geological settings, geochemistry, and geo-environmental conditions of an aquifer, different aquifers may have different adsorption and desorption processes, arsenic species, Eh, pH, solid phase dissolutions, and precipitations. Therefore, rigorous geochemical investigation for an adequate understanding of arsenic geochemistry under different hydrogeological and geo-environmental conditions of aquifers is essentially required for evolving sustainable solutions. All of the arsenic affected river plains have river routes originated from the Himalayan region. Arsenic in groundwater contamination has far-reaching consequences including its ingestion through the food chain, which are in the form of social disorders, health hazards and socioeconomic dissolution besides its sprawling movement, and exploitation of groundwater. Food crops produced with arsenic tainted water are marketed to other locations, including areas where people may eat the tainted food and be exposed to arsenic. The arsenic contamination of groundwater is a form of groundwater pollution which is due to naturally occurring high concentrations of arsenic in deeper levels of groundwater.