eChapters

Introduction
 
Climate change is a result from emission of greenhouse gases (e.g. CO₂, CH₄, N₂O, etc.) that will cause atmospheric warming (IPCC, 2007). Climate change may be due to natural internal processes or external forcing such as modulations of the solar cycles, volcanic eruptions, and persistent anthropogenic changes in the composition of the atmosphere or in land use. Human induced changes in atmosphere composition are a major concern. Burning of fossil fuels, like oil, coal, and natural gas is adding CO₂ to the atmosphere.

GHG emissions as an Agriculture
Agriculture is significant source of GHG emission. Farming records for roughly 10-12 % of absolute anthropogenic GHG emissions, contributing 40 % of all out methane (CH4) and 60 % of nitrous oxide (N2O); agriculture is greatest wellspring of anthropogenic non-CO2 discharges. CH4 begins predominantly from metabolic action of methane-creating microscopic organisms in rice paddy soils and the gastrointestinal maturation of ruminants. N2O discharges get predominantly from farmland soil nitrification and de-nitrification under nitrogen manure application. Rural waste treatment, for example, fertilizing the soil and biogas creation, likewise straightforwardly brings about CH4 and N2O discharges. The change of land use from backwoods to cropland increments soil CO2 discharges. Notwithstanding immediate GHG discharges, farming exercises like apparatus tasks, and compost and feed inputs additionally by implication increment the carbon impression of farming by means of different pathways like petroleum product utilization.
Agriculture a Key Carbon Sinks
Farming moreover addresses a key carbon sink, in spite of the way that it is a huge wellspring of GHG. Horticultural perennials, for instance, field, backwoods, natural item estates and tea houses can get CO2 from the Environment through photosynthesis. It is evaluated that around 13 % of the CO2 emanated by oil based commodity use is consumed by natural vegetation reliably. Vegetation stores are changed into soil natural carbon (SOC) by the activities of microorganisms. In particular, microbial Nero mass can associate with soil minerals to shape a muddled that is a protected carbon pool and the soil carbon can subsequently be taken care of for a surprisingly long time; this carbon tirelessness instrument is known as a soil microbial-mineral carbon siphon. The soil carbon pool (2400 Gt) truly relies upon twice that set aside in the terrestrial vegetation and on different occasions that set aside in the air. The “4 for every 1000 soil carbon overhaul plan,” first proposed by the French service of agribusiness at the Collected Nations Environmental Change Gettogether held in 2015, relies upon the epic carbon-sink breaking point of soils.

Summary

Biodiversity (the variety of living things) is fundamental to ecosystem structures and functions, and provide the broad spectrum of goods and services that humans derive from natural systems such as food (e.g. fish), protection from disasters such as cyclones, storms, floods (e.g. mangroves) or maintenance of water quality. Species (biodiversity) respond to climate change either staying or moving out or dying out. For example, the rise of temperature as a consequence of climate change may cause some species to (a) stay in the same environment since they can tolerate to adapt to changes; or (b) may cause some species to move out in a suitable environment (e.g. some species to move pole ward, some up in elevation) or (c) some species (fish) to go deep to increased depths in the oceans to escape heat or warming or (d) may cause some species to die out or get extinct (species with restricted distribution, longer generation time will not be able to migrate or adapt to climate change). A pattern of range shifts such as pole wards and upwards has been documented in hundreds of species of plants and animals and is one of the strongest signals of biotic changes from global warming. These shifts result from two processes: cold-edge expansion and warm-edge contraction. There is now abundant evidence for local extinctions from contractions at the warm edges of species’ ranges or warm edge contraction because the species may have already reached the limits of their climatic tolerance. Investigations conducted reveals that many terrestrial and aquatic species are shifting their geographic ranges in response to rapid changes in temperature and precipitation regimes. For example, many terrestrial organisms are currently shifting in latitude or elevation in response to changing climate. It has been estimated that plants and animals have recently shifted to higher elevations at a median rate of 11.0 m per decade, and to higher latitudes at a median rate of 16.9 km per decade.

Summary

Climate change (floods, droughts, rise of temperature and sea level) can directly impact the incidence of water related diseases through effects on water temperature and precipitation frequency and intensity. This chapter focuses on some common water quality related diseases that may enhance due to climate change such as arsenicosis, cholera, cyanobacterial toxins, dengue, diarrhoea and malaria. Arsenicosis is the disease caused by arsenic (As) contamination. As poisoning via groundwater has become a worldwide problem with 21 countries experiencing As groundwater contamination including Bangladesh, India, and China. In Bangladesh, out of 64 districts, As levels in 60 districts have exceeded WHO recommended guidelines of 10 µg/L and in 51 districts it exceeded Bangladesh recommended guidelines of above 50 µg/L. Chronic exposure to As has been linked to carcinogenic effects in both humans and animals. These include cancer of the various skins and internal organs (lung, bladder, liver and kidney) and reproductive and developmental effects; cardiovascular disease; reduced intellectual function in children and mortality. Alternate floods and droughts (due to climate change) have been found associated with the release of As and contamination of groundwater in Bangladesh, therefore may increase the risks of the disease due to rise of extreme events such as floods and droughts. Cholera is a diarrhoeal disease caused by the bacterium Vibrio cholerae. In 2012, WHO reported 245, 3931 cases of cholera in 48 countries, with more than 3,034 deaths with a case-fatality rate (CFR) of 1.2%. The highest cases were from Africa, followed by Latin America and Asia. The epidemic of cholera is reported to be linked strongly with climate change. Changes in temperature, salinity, rainfall and abundance of phytoplankton have been shown to cause an impact on distribution and survival of V. cholerae. In Bangladesh, cholera (cholera-toxin producing strain of V. cholerae) outbreaks are related to plankton blooms and rise of sea temperature.

Summary

Climate change can affect the quantitative and qualitative status of water resources by altering hydrological cycles, systems and through changes of water quality via chemical and biological contamination. Changes in these variables lead to impacts on all the socio-economic and environmental goods and services that depend on these variables directly or indirectly including water supply, damage to ecosystems, water dependent food production. The most dominant climate drivers for water quantity or water availability are precipitation, run-off and river flows, floods, droughts, snows, glaciers, sea level rise etc. The observed climate change related impacts on world’s water resources/water quantity include increased precipitation at high latitudes and temperate areas and decreasing trends at low latitudes. The annual run-off in some regions may experience increased run-off, such as in high latitudes and large parts of the USA, whereas there has been a decrease in run-off such as parts of West Africa, southern Europe and southernmost of South America. Floods have been the most reported natural disaster events in Africa, Asia and Europe than all other natural disasters and in case of Bangladesh, six extreme floods have occurred in the last two decades. More intense droughts have been reported from Australia, semi-arid and semi-humid regions, western USA and southern Canada, the Sahel. Precipitation is projected to increase at mid- and high latitudes, in the tropics, whereas precipitation is projected to decrease over many sub-tropical areas (North Africa, northern Sahara), tropical Central American (Caribbean) and the Mediterranean. In areas where evaporation rates are expected to increase it would lead to reduced river and stream run-off. In contrast, areas receiving higher precipitation would likely have higher lake and river levels and may experience floods. The annual stream flow in the Murray-Darling basin (Australia) is projected to fall by 10-25% by 2050 and 16-48% by 2100 which would have severe consequences on irrigated agriculture in the region. Rivers depending on the Himalayan glaciers such as the Indus, Ganges, Brahmaputra, Syr Darya and Amu Darya could face water shortages or river run-off due to retreat of glaciers, and this would cause dramatic impact on drinking water supplies, biodiversity, hydropower, industry, agriculture and ecosystems on which about 2.4 billion people in Asia depends. Globally, ground water is the source of one third of all freshwater withdrawals, supplying an estimated 36%, 42% and 27% of the water used for domestic, agricultural and industrial purposes, respectively. The demand for groundwater is likely to increase due to global increase of water use for irrigation and a decline in surface water quality and reduced summer flows in snow-dominated basins. It is projected that climate change (drought, floods) will affect groundwater recharge rates (e.g. floods would increase recharge, drought would decrease recharge).

Introduction 
Chapter 15 provides a comprehensive analysis of climate change and its profound effects on agriculture and global food systems. This chapter delves into the science of climate change, focusing on its impacts on agricultural practices, climate-smart strategies, and the role of specialized climate change centers and institutes. The chapter begins with an exploration of the impacts of climate change on agriculture, detailing how shifts in temperature, precipitation patterns, and extreme weather events affect crop yields, livestock production, and overall agricultural productivity. It highlights the vulnerabilities of different agricultural systems and regions to climate change. Climate-smart agricultural practices are central to adapting to and mitigating the effects of climate change. This section covers adaptation strategies, such as adjusting planting dates, diversifying crops, and improving water management. It also addresses mitigation strategies, including reducing greenhouse gas emissions through sustainable farming practices and enhancing carbon sequestration in soils. Adaptation and mitigation strategies are discussed in detail, with an emphasis on how these approaches can be integrated to address climate change comprehensively. The interplay between adaptation (adjusting to changing conditions) and mitigation (reducing the root causes of climate change) is examined, emphasizing the need for balanced and coordinated efforts. The chapter underscores the importance of climate change centers and institutes in addressing food security. These institutions play a crucial role in research, policy development, and the implementation of climate-smart practices. They provide valuable data, tools, and guidance for managing the impacts of climate change on agriculture. The impact of climate change centers and institutes on global warming is analyzed, focusing on how these organizations contribute to reducing greenhouse gas emissions and enhancing adaptive capacity. Their role in advancing climate science and supporting climate action is highlighted. Modern concepts in climate change centers and institutes are reviewed, showcasing innovative approaches and technologies that are shaping the field of climate science and its application to agriculture. The chapter concludes with strategies for combating food security and global warming challenges. It emphasizes the need for continued research, international collaboration, and the adoption of effective climate-smart practices to ensure sustainable agricultural systems and enhance global food security.

Dryland agriculture is a more vulnerable system in view of its high dependency on monsoon rains which are of aberrant nature. The risk of crop failure and poor yields always restrain farmers from investing on new technologies and input use.

Concept of resilience

Resilience is used to describe the magnitude of a disturbance that a system can withstand without crossing threshold into a new structure or dynamic. Resilience is defined as “the ability of a system and its component parts to anticipate, absorb, accommodate, or escape from unacceptable standards of living due to the effects of a hazardous event, in a timely and efficient manner”. In other words, resilience describes the capacity of communities in a given context or landscape to maintain and improve their livelihoods—despite stresses and shocks—through the sustainable management of natural resources while maintaining key ecological functions

7.1 Introduction

Water is one of the most essential natural resources of the planet. Water is also the most critical resource for sustainable development in most of the developing countries. The quantities that are needed for drinking and sanitation purpose of humans are relatively small, and much larger quantities of water are required for many other purposes. It is essential not only for agriculture, industry and economic growth of a country, but also it is the most important component of the environment and ecosystem, with significant impact on overall wealth and nature conservation. Agricultural and industrial activities critically depend on a sufficient amount of fresh water that is withdrawn from rivers, lakes and groundwater aquifers. Currently, the rapid growth of world population along with the extension of irrigation dependent agriculture, development of industrial sector and climate change are stressing the quantity and quality of the natural water systems. Due to the increasing problems, human have begun to realize that they can no longer follow “use and discard” methodology either with water resources or any other natural resources. As a result, the need for water management has become evident. Climate change has already started to affect the hydrological cycle and the availability of freshwater for agriculture. So, proper water management practices play crucial roles in the food production and the management of ecosystems. Over the last century global irrigated area has increased more than sixfold from approximately 40 million hectares in 1900 to more than 260 million hectares in 2000. Today more than 40% of the world’s food comes from the irrigated cropland which is 18% of the total cultivated crop land. Irrigated area is increased by almost 1% every year and the demand for irrigation water will increase by 13.6% by 2025 (Jensen, 1993). On the other hand about 8-15% of fresh water supply will be diverted from agricultural sector to meet the increased demand of domestic and industrial use. On the other hand the efficiency of irrigation is very low, only 65% of the applied water is used by the crop (Fig. 1). So, to overcome shortage of irrigation water for agriculture, it is essential to increase the water use efficiency in the crop field and to use marginal water for irrigation.

Introduction

Climate smart agriculture (CSA) refers to the incorporation of adaptation and mitigation practices in agriculture that enhances the system-resistance and recovery-mechanism against climatic hazards. Climatic hazards / disturbances include drought, flood, heat / cold wave, erratic precipitation, sudden dry spell etc. In nutshell, CSA is the ability of the system to bounce back. It can also be explained as an approach to build-up resilience of agricultural systems, to increase adaptive capacities of farming communities to climate change and variability, and to ensure food security (Prasad et al., 2015).

Climate change can be defined as a statistically significant variation in either the mean state of the climate or in its variability, persisting of an extended period, typically three decades or longer (Pathak et al., 2014; NAAS, 2013, Bhattacharyya et al., 2016). The surface air temperature, sea level rise, occurrence of extreme events (heat wave, cyclone, flash flood) is the direct evidences of climate change. The annual average surface temperature has increased by 0.87^°C in 100 years (IPCC, 2018). Recent report revealed that more than 90% of Northern Hemisphere land areas outside the tropics showed at least 1^°C above average, whereas temperatures were less extreme in Southern Hemisphere. Importantly, temperatures were above normal over most of the ocean areas. Global sea level rose to about 15 mm, in between November (2014) and February (2016), as a result of ElNino, which was well above the post-1993 trend of 3.0-3.5 mm year^-1. However, Indian summer monsoon rainfall since 1901 to 2012 showed no long-term trends, with some regional changes. Importantly, night temperatures have increased sharply during recent years, which couple with erratic precipitation could significantly affect agricultural production. The fifth IPCC (IPCC, 2014) reports clearly brought out global and regional impacts of climate change on Agriculture, Forestry and Other Land Use (AFOLU). South Asia has been characterized as one of the most vulnerable regions. Impacts of climate change witnessed all over the world; however, countries like India is more vulnerable because of its huge population primary dependent on agriculture for livelihood, predominance of small and marginal farmers, and fragmented land holding.

Climate change presents horticulture with increasing challenges including heat stress, water scarcity, erratic rainfall, extreme weather, new pest pressures, and changing crop suitability. This chapter examines strategies for developing climate-resilient horticultural systems through improved cultivars, efficient irrigation, protected cultivation, mulching, canopy management, soil-health practices, and diversification. Climate-smart production also requires better forecasting, monitoring, risk management, and resource efficiency. Future horticulture is expected to integrate biotechnology, artificial intelligence, precision agriculture, automation, renewable energy, and resilient production systems. The chapter emphasizes adaptation rather than dependence on a single technology, promoting integrated approaches that maintain productivity, quality, profitability, and ecological sustainability under changing climatic conditions.

In provincial areas of non-industrial nations, over 70% of the populace actually relies upon agriculture . Be that as it may, financial emergencies, informal land distribution and Climate change issues have ruined endeavored gains in agricultural efficiency and related rustic improvement results. Innovation pushed advancement has generally driven farming to the brink of another improvement that can influence plant variety and yield, yet additionally climatological and financial results. The idea of economical agriculture has become progressively advocated as examination and cultivating networks accept that efficiency with natural and social outcomes should be sensibly adjusted. Agriculture of created countries has basically benefitted of this idea overall during the 1990 s. To find success around the world, broad exploration should be led not just for enormous scope farmers in created countries yet additionally for limited scope ranches in agricultural countries. Climatic smart agriculture saves biodiversity by taking on sound, multifunctional, and multi-trimming approach through plan arranged spatial preparation and stream among them. Here, a spatiotemporal information driven worldview for detecting observing and coordinating agricultural Climate has been proposed to upgrade the utilization of Climatic smart agriculture framework. As an excursion towards maintainable coordinated cultivating, computerized farming offers different open doors for universal systems administration and computerized resources through information sway. The exploration issues are basically worried in the combination of different information archives with administration information, open access information, institutional information, and space explicit information from end clients. Because of the mix of heterogeneous sensors and advanced stages in agriculture, the information typology is getting more extravagant, and how much information is continually expanding.
Feedstocks assume a significant part in the comprehensive advancement of non-industrial nations that depend vigorously on agriculture. It has been standard that farmers must be actually present on their fields during each

Climate change and resource scarcity require farming systems that anticipate risks and make proactive decisions. This chapter explains how predictive modelling, artificial intelligence and IoT technologies can strengthen climate-smart agriculture. Statistical techniques, Convolutional Neural Networks, Long Short-Term Memory networks and Transformer models are examined for forecasting weather, crop performance and resource requirements. These tools can improve irrigation and fertilizer management, raise productivity and reduce environmental impact. Adoption remains constrained by poor-quality data, infrastructure deficiencies, cost, limited interpretability and unequal access to digital technology. Farmer-centred design, federated learning, gradual deployment and scalable systems are recommended for developing fair, practical and climate-resilient agricultural solutions.

Climatic statistics applies quantitative methods to weather and climate observations, transforming raw records into information for forecasting, planning and resource management. This chapter explains how averages, variability, distribution, trends and extremes describe climatic behaviour over time and space. It introduces climate normals, measures of central tendency, dispersion, skewness, kurtosis, data quality, missing-value treatment, homogenization and outlier detection. Statistical interpretation helps distinguish short-term weather fluctuations from long-term climatic patterns. In agriculture, these techniques support crop planning, drought assessment, rainfall characterization and risk management. The chapter establishes the statistical foundation required for scientifically examining climate variability and its influence on crops, ecosystems and agricultural resources.

Soil sample collection is the first and most important step for soil quality analysis. A soil sample collected with due care and proper procedure is essential for getting reliable result of the analysis. The sample should represent the field and for practical purposes, an area of about 0.5 hectare is considered as one sampling unit. In case of conspicuous variation observed in the field in terms of texture, colour, slope etc, separate samples should be collected from areas differing in these attributes. In other words, sample should be collected from an area in the field with similar characteristics as seen through normal visual observation. Sampling should thus be avoided from areas like near trees, permanent vegetations, manure pits, manure piles or recently fertilized fields.

Soil Sampling procedure

1. For a particular field unit, one composite soil sample is prepared out of the samples collected from 7-8 spots distributed across the field unit. The entire field is covered by moving in a zig-zag manner from each sampling spot.
2. For each sampling point or spot, scrapping off the surface litter such as grasses or crop residues is done. Then, a “V” shaped pit of 15-20 cm length and of equal width is made. Depth of sampling depends upon the requirement and on the type of crop. For field crops like paddy, wheat etc, samples are collected from 15 cm depth. From the “V” shaped pits, take outslice of ½ inch thickness from both sides of the exposed pit surfaces from top to bottom.
3. The soil samples so collected from the 7-8 points are mixed thoroughly by hand and then is reduced to about 500 g by quartering process. The quartering process consists of a procedure in which the entire soil mass is divided into four quarters; the two opposite ones are discarded and the remaining two are remixed. This process is repeated till about 500g soil is obtained.

Soil is analyzed to know the nature of soil, to classify and advocate to farmers about the peculiarities of the soils and how much of fertilizers should be applied for better crop production.

A composite soil, of course, can not be moved to into a laboratory. The value of the laboratory work depends upon care in sampling. Each soil sample needs to be a fair representative of the specific area or horizon worth sampling.

If the sample is to be a representative of an area, it is necessary to take large number of samples spread over the area, pool them and sub-sample it so as to get a sample of desired size. For soil survey work, samples are collected from a profile which is typical of the soil of the surrounding area.

Precise collection and processing of soil sample is the first and foremost step for carrying out any soil study, therefore it is essential to collect the coil sample very accurately keeping in view the variations in slope, colour and texture of the soil management aspects. Soil sampling should be avoided from non-representative sites like recently fertilized plots, bunds, channels, marshy tracts and spots near trees, wells, compost piles etc. It should be kept in mind that erroneous samples will never yield accurate result in spite of very improved method of analysis. The depth of sampling may vary according to the need of soil study and extent of rhizosphere. However, in general the sampling depth for field crops is the plough layer (0 - 15 cm) but it could be up to one meter or as per the purpose of the study. Soil samples in dry farming areas should be taken depth wise as the roots of the crops in this conditions reaches to deeper layers in search of water and nutrients.

Mainly two types of soil samples (disturbed and undisturbed) are used for determining the physical properties of soil. The disturbed soil samples are used for determination of particle size distribution, particle density, aggregation, column studies for diffusion-dispersion coefficients and soil-water diffusivity. Whereas, undisturbed (core) soil samples are used for the estimation of bulk density, porosity, retention and transmission characteristics of air and water.

Soil is a mass of large variability and thus its sampling is the most challenging problem for any soil analyst. Practically, soil sampling is a two step process which includes (i) collection of soil from homogeneous unit and (ii) processing which in turn includes drying, grinding, sieving, mixing, partitioning and storing.

1.1. Sources of Error in Soil Chemical Analysis

Different sources of error involved starting from soil sampling to chemical analysis of a sample can be divided into three main groups:

1. Sampling error : This error results from variability among the different samples drawn from same soil unit with respect to the objective of sampling.
2. Sub-sampling error : This error is due to variability introduced among sub samples of the same soil sample.
3. Analytical error : This error introduced due to variability from one chemical determination to another on same sub sample.

Soil testing identifies various constraints in soil that limit crop production. Fertilizer recommendation and soil management practices to be adopted are based on the soil test report. Soil testing starts with collection of soil samples from the field
and ends with interpretation of soil test results leading to necessary recommendations for increasing crop production.

This chapter explains how representative soil samples should be collected, labelled, transported and prepared for analysis. It identifies essential sampling equipment, including spades, khurpis, augers, trays, sampling bags, markers and polythene sheets. The recommended procedure involves dividing land into uniform sampling units, collecting soil from several well-distributed locations and combining these portions into a composite sample. The chapter describes V-shaped sampling cuts, suitable sampling depths and sample reduction through quartering. It also lists the field information that should accompany each sample. Procedures for air-drying, grinding, sieving and mixing samples are presented, together with precautions for avoiding unusual areas and contamination.