eChapters

15.1 Computer Network

It is a group of computers and peripherals which are interconnected to share information and resources. A communication system that supports many users can be called a Network or we can say network is a communication system which interconnects many users who have something in common, either with respect to the type of data being sent or to the geographic areas that the users cover. There are three types of computer networks:

15.1.1 Local area network (LAN)

It is a small network (2 to 100 nodes) usually located within a single building or group of buildings belonging to an organization or an institute.

t TEST FOR TWO SAMPLE MEAN:

Comparison of two sample means  and assumed to have been obtained on the basis of random samples of sizes n₁ and n₂ from the same population which is assumed to be normal.

t TEST FOR PAIRED OBSERVATION

This test is used for testing whether two series of paired observations are gen- erated from the same population on the basis of the difference in their sample means.

F TEST (VARIANCE RATIO TEST)

F distribution is applied in several tests of significance relating to the equality of two sampling variances drawn on the basis of independent samples from a normal population.

CHI- SQUARE TEST (χ₂ TEST)

The chi square test is used to determine if the two attributes are independent of each other. Chi square is a measure to evaluate the difference between observed frequencies and expected frequencies to examine whether the difference so obtained is due to a chance factor or due to sampling error.

In a contingency table if each attribute is divided into two classes it is known as 2×2 contingency table. When one attribute is divided into two classes and another into r or c resultant contingency table is known as r×2 or 2×c contingency table. Here, r denotes the number of rows and c the number of columns. For such data, the statistical hypothesis under test is that the two attribute are independent of one another. To test this hypothesis we use the test statistic

The chi square is a continuous distribution based on the assumption that the ul- timate class frequency is not less than 5 otherwise the value of χ₂ will be over- estimated and may cause too many rejections of null hypothesis. Therefore, to maintain the continuity of χ₂ and to draw the correct inference in 2×2 we apply a correction which is known as Yates’s correction for continuity.

A simple random sample (SRS) of size n consists of n individuals from the population chosen in such a way that every set of n individuals has an equal chance to be the sample actually selected.

A simple random sample is a subset of a statistical population in which each member of the subset has an equal probability of being chosen. An example of a simple random sample would be the names of 25 employees being chosen out of a hat from a company of 250 employees. In this case, the population is all 250 employees, and the sample is random because each employee has an equal chance of being chosen.

Abstract

Data pertaining to 1761 records on daily milk yield and 1416 milk samples for estimation of fat and SNF percent in Banni buffalo during the year 2008-10 were collected from the breeding tract under In-situ conservation project on Banni buffalo and utilized for present study. The overall means ± SE for daily milk yield was 09.86 ± 0.07 lit. The month-wise daily milk yield was observed highest in second month, followed by 1st (12.96 ± 0.19 lit), 3rd (12.73 ± 0.19 lit), 4th (11.66 ± 0.20 lit), 5th (10.81 ± 0.25 lit), 6th (09.77 ± 0.23 lit), 7th (08.58 ± 0.18 lit), 8th (07.26 ± 0.17 lit), 9th (06.15 ± 0.11 lit), 11th  (05.70 ± 0.10 lit), 10th (05.41 ± 0.09 lit), 12th (05.78 ± 0.08 lit) and 13th  (05.48 ± 0.63 lit) months of lactation. The data on milk constituents’ viz. fat and SNF percent was grouped according to the seasons of the year and morning – evening milking.

Selection is an important tool for changing gene frequencies to better fit individuals for a particular purpose. It may be defined as a process in which certain individuals in a population are preferred to others for the production of the next generation. Selection is of two kinds

An animal breeder usually interested in various economic traits and when wishes to improve them in the herd/flock, he has three general methods at his disposal. Tandom method, independent culling level method and  index selection method.

Tandom Method

It involves selection for one trait at a time and until it reaches at a satisfactory level, and then for a third trait etc. This method is applicable only when the different traits in question are entirely independent or positively genetically associated to each other. Its effectiveness decreases with the increase in number of traits. This method is least desirable of all the methods.

General Selection Procedures for Dairy Breeds
Selection of Dairy Cows
Selecting a calf in calf show, a cow in cattle show by judging is an art. A dairy farmer should build up his own herd by breeding his own herd. Following guidelines will beuseful for selection of a diary cow. Whenever an animal is purchased from cattle fair, it should be selected based upon its breed characters and milk producing.
History sheet or pedigree sheet which are generally maintained in organized farmsreveals the complete history of animal.The maximum yield by dairy cows are noticed during the first five lactations. So generally selection should be carried out during First or Second lactation and thattoo are month after calving.?Three successive complete milkings has to be done and an average of it will givea fair idea regarding production by a particular animal.
A cow should allow anybody to milk, and should be docile.?It is better to purchase the animals during the months of October and November.?Maximum yield is noticed till 90 days after calving.

Introduction

Currently, the agricultural industry is expanding exponentially. Improved economic growth and rapid population growth have spurred investor interest in the agricultural industry. The World Bank estimates it to be worth $3 trillion. With the urbanization and industrialization of the agricultural sector, the amount of waste generated has also increased, causing many environmental problems. About 5 million metric tons of biomass are produced annually from agriculture. These agricultural wastes become breeding grounds for pathogenic microorganisms if not properly treated and recycled, it is noteworthy that this agricultural waste can be used as substrates for the synthesis of valuable product or as raw material for renewable energy production.

1.     Asssay for Catalase
    
2.     Assay for Peroxidase
    
3.     Assay for Poly Phenol Oxidase
    
4.     Assay for Phosphatases

ALL MATTER IS IN MOTION

Everything moves:

In the atom electrons rotate around the nucleus

In gases, liquids and even solids molecules move away from other molecules

An accumulation of matter (i.e., a baseball) can move as a unit

The average velocity of movement is the distance travelled divided by the time

Bodies in motion have energy; the faster the velocity the more energy

Abstract

The knowledge of programming language(s) is necessary to solve biocomputational problems and also understand the data pattern. Computer programming is used to develop software to extract information from data which is very crucial while practicing bioinformatics. Programming language is a man-made, computer-understandable, artificial language, that is designed to instruct a machine, particularly a computer to get the desired output. This chapter briefly narrates the concept of algorithms, programming languages, and the historical perspective of the same.