eChapters

Bovine
 
1.    PPR    Eye, mouth, rectal swab in PBS on ice, 10 ml blood  in anti-coagulant at height of temperature, Prescapular lymph node, spleen, piece of intestine on ice, lung, liver, spleen, tonsil in 10% neutral formol saline solution.

The tentative diagnosis of viral diseases of livestock can be made by clinical symptoms alone. The clinical diagnosis is substantiated by the laboratory to obtain a precise, correct and prompt diagnosis. The success however depends on the collection of suitable materials in proper transport medium at a particular stage of disease condition and its dispatch to the laboratory in a manner that little or no alterations occurs in the specimen. This would facilitate the isolation and identification of the causative viral agents easily.

Introduction

Colorimetry is a scientific technique widely used across various fields to quantify the concentration of substances based on their color intensity. Colorimetry is a branch of analytical chemistry that focuses on measuring the absorbance or transmission of light by colored solutions. It utilizes the principles of optics and spectroscopy to determine the concentration of a substance in a solution based on its color intensity. This technique relies on the Beer-Lambert law, which states that the absorbance of light by a solution is directly proportional to its concentration and path length.

Principles of Colorimetry

The fundamental principle of colorimetry lies in the interaction of light with matter. When light passes through or is reflected off a substance, certain wavelengths are absorbed, while others are transmitted or reflected. The color we perceive is due to the wavelengths of light that are reflected back to our eyes. In colorimetry, a photometric measurement is made using a colorimeter or spectrophotometer, which quantifies the intensity of light absorbed or transmitted by a sample.

Abstract

Performance records of 1085 crossbred cattle daughters of 57 sires maintained during 1974-2004 at Instructional Dairy Farm of G. B. Pant University of Agriculture & Technology, Pantnagar were used to evaluate sires for first lactation and life time performance traits. First lactation traits included were age at first calving (AFC), first lactation period (FLP),first dry period (FDP) and first calving interval (FCI) and life time traits were herd life (HL), total lactation length and life time milk yield. The data were analyzed to estimate the breeding values of sires using least squares methods (LSM), best linear unbiased prediction (BLUP) and derivative free restricted maximum likelihood (DFREML) method. The average breeding values of sires estimated by all three methods were similar and estimated for AFC, FLP, FDP and FCI as 1359.95 days, 356.56 days, 177.58 days and 534.15 days respectively and for HL, TLL and LTMY as 1641.30 days, 1320.20 days and 9110.30 kg respectively. The estimated breeding values (EBV’S) showed large genetic variation between sires for both first lactation and life time traits. The estimated breeding values (EBV’S) of sires had very high and significant product moment correlations and rank correlations among all first lactation and lifetime traits estimated by all three methods.

Principle

Plasmids requires hosts to replicate, hence it has to be inserted into bacteria. But efficiency of uptake of plasmid DNA by bacteria is low and will not do so without getting degraded. Therefore, to enhance the probability of uptake of the plasmid DNA by bacteria it is necessary to make the bacterial cells “competent” to absorb the plasmid DNA. One of the methods to increase efficiency of cell competence is given below. It should be noted that competent cells are more fragile than normal bacteria. Vortexing the cells, heating the cells above 42ºC or to 42°C for prolonged periods, or exposure of the cells to abusive treatments may kill them

Completely Randomized Design (CRD)

The simplest design using the two essential principles of replication and randomization is the CRD. Suppose that we have t treatments (or t levels of a factor) under comparison and ith treatment is to be replicated r times, for i = 1,2, … t . A particular case of this is equal replication for different treatments, where r1=r2= =r6=r, so that n=rt.

Cell culture medium : To grow cells in in vitro, environment should be as close as possible to in vivo condition. But a number of factors are important to grow cells in vitro namely substrate, temperature and medium. There is a number of ready made medium available commercially and made the cell culture work easier. Any successful medium consists of isotonic buffer solution containing inorganic salts, amino acids, vitamins, a energy source and various supplements. Usually serum or serum replacement is used as supplement.

The amount of variation is measured and expressed as the variance. When values are expressed as deviations from the population mean the variance is simple the mean of the squared values. For example, the genotypic variance is the variance of genotypic values and the environmental variance is the variance of environmental deviations. The total variance is the phenotypic variance of the variance of phenotypic values, and is the sum of the separate components.
Components of Variance
The components of variance and the values whose variance they measure are listed as follows:
The total variance is the phenotypic variance, or the variance of phenotypic values, and is the sum of the separate components. Thus
But if genotypic values and environmental deviations are correlated, VP will be increased by twice the covariance of G with E because if P = G + E, VP = V (G + E) = VG + VE + 2 CovGE. d. The term 2 CovGE is zero when G and E are uncorrelated. Also when there is an interaction between genotypes and environments, there will be an additional component of variance due to the interaction i.e.

It is emphasizing the systematic approach required for the successful planning and funding of projects:
Components of Project Formulation
1. Needs Analysis: Identifying and defining the needs that the project intends to address, typically involving stakeholder consultation and market analysis. This process involves systematically gathering and analyzing data about a community, a group, or a market to identify both the current conditions and the gaps between these conditions and desired outcomes. Effective needs assessment aids in designing projects that are relevant, targeted, and likely to produce significant impact. Here’s a more detailed exploration of how needs assessment is integral to project formulation:
Key Steps in Conducting a Needs Assessment
• Stakeholder Identification: Early in the project formulation, identify all relevant stakeholders, including direct beneficiaries, community leaders, funders, and other affected parties. Understanding who will be impacted by the project helps in targeting the needs assessment process more effectively.
• Data Collection: Utilize various methods such as surveys, interviews, focus groups, and field observations to gather comprehensive data about the current state and deficiencies experienced by stakeholders. This might involve looking at socioeconomic data, environmental conditions, or specific community challenges.
• Gap Analysis: Analyze the data to identify gaps between the current state and the desired outcomes. This analysis helps pinpoint the specific areas where interventions are needed.formulation: 

14.1 Computer

Computer is an electronic device designed to accept and store data, process them and produce meaningful results under the direction of detailed step by instructions.

In 1822, Charles Babbage, a professor of Cambridge University designed a machine called an “Analytical Engine”, which could store data and perform arithmetic operations and printing out results. He is known as “Father of Computer”.

14.1.1 Basic anatomy of computer

The word Anatomy of a computer means inner structure of the computer. The study of anatomy of computer is necessary to acquire the knowledge and functioning of its inner components. Thus, essentially a computer consists of the following three main units

VIVEK M. PATIL & M.D. SURANAGI

A computer is an electronic device that has the ability to store, retrieve, and process data, and can be programmed with instructions that it remembers. Simply put, it is a very obedient servant which does whatever task it is commanded to do, in the manner in which it is trained/ programmed to carry out that task. Some of the terms commonly referred to while using computers are:

• Hardware : The physical parts that make up a computer eg. input devices, the central processing unit (CPU), memory and output devices.
• Software : A set of instructions that tell the computer what to do and how to perform a particular task is called a program, software program, or software. eg. Microsoft Word document management software enables us to type out a letter.
• Peripherals : Hardware devices connected to a computer i.e. any part of the computer outside the CPU and working memory. eg. keyboard, mouse, monitor, printer, scanner, disk and tape drives, microphone, speakers, joystick, plotter, and camera.
• Input : Whatever is typed, submitted or entered into a computer system. eg. typing a list of names.
• Data : The symbols that represent facts, objects and ideas on a computer. eg. representation of a list of names in binary language.
• Processing : Manipulation of data by the CPU of the computer or a microprocessor. eg. sorting of the list of names in alphabetic order.
• Output : The result produced by a computer after manipulating data. eg. printing out the list of names in alphabetic order.
• Memory : An area of the computer that temporarily holds data waiting to be processed or stored. eg. random access memory (RAM) and read only memory (ROM)

15.1 Computer Network

It is a group of computers and peripherals which are interconnected to share information and resources. A communication system that supports many users can be called a Network or we can say network is a communication system which interconnects many users who have something in common, either with respect to the type of data being sent or to the geographic areas that the users cover. There are three types of computer networks:

15.1.1 Local area network (LAN)

It is a small network (2 to 100 nodes) usually located within a single building or group of buildings belonging to an organization or an institute.

“Curriculum” is seen often as a critical issue during discussions on quality of agricultural education, being considered variously as content, as product and as process. It is easy to make the assumption that a common understanding of curriculum, but in practice this is far from the case, with a host of definitions, approaches and ideological standpoints. Even though a dialogue on curriculum theory is well established, there is still a strong tendency in practice to understand curriculum as a list of content, often developed in considerable detail, that students should be taught.

Introduction
Understanding the concepts of technology transfer, licensing, and commercialization is crucial as it plays an important role in understanding how scientific discoveries leads to generation of new technologies further making them the impactful solutions that benefit industries and society. In the context of Indian HEIs, this especially important because a large volume of impactful research often remains underutilized due to limited commercialization channels. This chapter explains the terminology, essential components of technology transfer, outlines its significance for the innovation ecosystem. It also outlines the evolution of India’s technology transfer ecosystem, and emphasizes while understanding its potential to boost India’s economy, encourage entrepreneurship, and strengthen global competitiveness. From initial idea to a market-ready product is complex and multiphased process. The stepwise process is shown in Figure 1. It highlights a structured pathway consisting of five core phases: Idea/Concept, Technology development, Intellectual Property (IP) rights, Technology transfer, and Technology commercialisation.
Phase 1: Idea/Concept stage
This process of technology transfer starts with the Idea/Concept phase, where an invention is created. Each phase plays an important role in transforming raw scientific knowledge into innovative solutions that benefit society and generate economic value. In this phase breakthrough ideas emerge, within labs. Researchers explore and develop initial proof-of-concept or prototypes to validate their ideas. At this stage, the focus is primarily on knowledge creation rather than commercialization. This pathway of technology transition is summarized in Figure 1.

The difficulty in conducting a factorial experiment in an RBD is that, as the number of factors and/ or that of levels of the factors increase, the number of treatment combinations to be compared increases too. This in turn necessitates use of large sized blocks to accommodate all the treatment combinations i.e in a 2^4 – experiment there should be 16 plots in a block. But it has been found that the experimental error increases with an increase in the size of a block, for then it becomes less effective in controlling the heterogeneity of the units. A remedy has been found out : this is to divide a replicate (a complete block) into a number of equal blocks (incomplete blocks) and then to allocate the treatment combinations to these blocks so that only the unimportant treatment comparisons gets mixed up or entangled with the block comparisons. These treatment comparisons are then said to be confounded or mixed up with block effects. These effects cannot be separately tested or estimated. But the remaining treatment effects, which are not confounded with the block effects, are still capable of separate estimation and testing.

Introduction

India ranks third in sheep population and accounts for 6.13 % of world population (FAO, 2009) with 71.56 million sheep to its record as of Livestock Census 2007 (DAHD, 2012). Out of 71.56 million sheep, 3.73 million are crossbred and 67.83 are indigenous. Sheep husbandry is backbone of rural economy in India. It is important as it helps in sustaining the livelihood of rural poor in difficult terrains characterized by sparse vegetation, marginal land and a high incidence of poverty. These breeds were developed following domestication and natural and artificial selection over the past 12,000 years.

India has vast animal genetic resources with a wide variety of indigenous farm animal breeds. These breeds have evolved over generations to adapt to specific agro-climatic and socio-economic needs of the people. Many number of these breeds are now subjected to fast genetic degradation and dilution because of unplanned and indiscriminate breeding and introduction of exotic germplasm.

Domestic animal diversity in developing countries is embedded in traditional farming and pastoral communities who manage their livestock according to their Indigenous Technological Knowledge (ITK) and in tune with local ecological constraints.

Abstract

Bhadawari is one of the recognized buffalo breeds of India and is famous for high milk fat content. The main breeding tract is Agra and Etawah in Uttar Pradesh and Bhind and Morena districts in Madhya   Pradesh. The tract was a part of the erstwhile Bhadawar estate from where the name of these animals originated. Bhadawari, the brown beauty of ravines and predominantly the only breed adapted to the harsh conditions of the ravines with undulating topography, thorny and scanty bushes, climatic stress and draught conditions. Breed is said to be resistant to many tropical bovine diseases and also known for eating less and producing more. Calf mortality is significantly lower than the other breeds of buffaloes. Male animals are good for agriculture work especially for ploughing in rice fields.

Introduction
India has vast animal genetic resources with a wide variety of indigenous farm animals including cattle. The cattle breeds have evolved over generations to adapt to the agro-climatic and socio-economic needs of the people. Domestic animal diversity is defined as the spectrum of genetic differences within each breed and across all breeds within each domestic animal species, together with the species differences; all of which are available for the sustainable intensification of food and agriculture production . The domestic animal diversity has evolved over millions of years through the processes of natural selection forming and stabilizing each of the species used in food and agriculture. Over the more recent millennia the interaction between environmental and human selection has led to the development of genetically distinct breeds. Selection processes, directed by both humans and the environment, together with the random sampling processes causing genetic populations to drift over generations, have accelerated the development of the diversity within species leading to the creation of distinct genetic differences amongst breeds.
India is the seventh largest country in the world and it is recognized as one of the 12-mega biodiversity centres of the world. It is well marked off from the rest of Asia by mountains and the sea, which gives the country a distinct geographical entity. Due to diverse agro-ecological regions and topographic conditions, India has rich repository of both flora and fauna. India has vast animal genetic resources with a wide variety of indigenous farm animals. Indigenous animal breeds are now 53 for cattle, 20 for buffalo, 39 for goat, 45 for sheep, 8 for horses & ponies, 9 for camel, 14 for pig, 3 for donkey, 3 for dog, 1 for yak, 20 for chicken, 3 for duck, and 1 for geese, besides many other non-descript and mixed populations. Livestock husbandry is an age-old important occupation for Indian farmers. The unique and rich animal biodiversity is extensively referred to in Indian scriptures.

Introduction
India has vast animal genetic resources with a wide variety of indigenous farm animals including cattle. The cattle breeds have evolved over generations to adapt to the agro-climatic and socio-economic needs of the people. Domestic animal diversity is defined as the spectrum of genetic differences within each breed and across all breeds within each domestic animal species, together with the species differences; all of which are available for the sustainable intensification of food and agriculture production. The domestic animal diversity has evolved over millions of years through the processes of natural selection forming and stabilizing each of the species used in food and agriculture. Over the more recent millennia the interaction between environmental and human selection has led to the development of genetically distinct breeds. Selection processes, directed by both humans and the environment, together with the random sampling processes causing genetic populations to drift over generations, have accelerated the development of the diversity within species leading to the creation of distinct genetic differences amongst breeds.