eChapters

Dairy buffalo production has been a tradition in Asian region and some other parts of the world where fresh  buffalo milk, dahi (cultured sour milk), ghee (butter oil) and yoghurt are very popular. In Italy, the dairy buffalo industry is flourishing; thanks to the popularity of buffalo mozzarella cheese. Because of the market for Mozzarella, buffalo farming is a profitable enterprise and is carried out in an organized manner with modern equipment.

The polymerase chain reaction (PCR) is a rapid way of amplifying (duplicating) specific DNA sequences

Method was devised by Kary Mullis of Cetus Corporation, Emeryville He recieved a $20,000 bonus and later a Nobel Prize

DNA heated to high temperature is not destroyed; separates into single strands, but reforms helix when cooled

PCR Method:

DNA to be amplified is put into solution containing:

Introduction

Agricultural biodiversity must be an integrated part of climate change adaptation and mitigation efforts. Climate change adaptation, biodiversity conservation and poverty alleviation should complement each other (FAO, 2007, 2008). Climate affects vectors, pathogens, hosts and host-pathogen interactions from the level of cellular defence to that of the habitat. Hoberg et al. (2008) provide an overview of predicted responses of complex host-pathogen systems to climate change. Climate change may affect the spatial distribution of disease outbreaks, and their timing and intensity (Epstein 2001). Outbreaks of African horse sickness, peste des petits ruminants, Rift Valley fever, bluetongue virus, facial eczema and anthrax are triggered by specific weather conditions and changes in seasonal rainfall profiles.

Buffaloes have been classified in two main categories namely riverine and swamp buffaloes depending upon variation in their habitat and genome structure. River buffaloes are generally large in size mostly with curled horns and are mainly found in India, Pakistan and some of the west Asian countries, prefer to enter clear water and have 50 (2n) numbers of chromosomes and are primarily used for milk production and also used for meat production and draught power. Swamp buffaloes are stocky animals with marshy land habitats and have 48 (2n) numbers of chromosomes. They were primarily developed for draught power in paddy fields and haulage and are also used for meat and milk production. Swamp buffaloes are mostly found in south East Asian countries and few animals are also available in north eastern states of India.

Livestock is one of the fastest growing agricultural subsectors in developing countries. In India has a vast diversity of animal genetic resources. Among them, sheep is an important ‘five star’ livestock species contributing significantly to rural economy through production of mutton, wool, manure, skin and milk etc. Sheep make a valuable contribution to the livelihood of the economically weaker sections of the society. The total Livestock population is 535.78 million and total sheep population is 74.26 million in in the country showing an increase of 4.6% and 14.1%, respectively over Livestock Census-2012. And it’s ranking 3rd in the world after China and Australia. Rajasthan is the fourth largest sheep rearing state in India with 7.9 million population (Livestock Census, 2019). Malpura sheep is one amongst the heaviest sheep breed of India, widely distributed in the semi-arid region of Rajasthan, mostly Tonk, Jaipur and Sawai Madhopur districts. Malpura sheep is reared and improved for mutton production since year 1975 at CSWRI, Avikanagar. The objective since then has been to improve the growth characteristics of this sheep breed for producing more carcass yield.The sheep is known for its adaptability to the harsh environment and potential for high meat production.Coat colour of Malpura sheep is white with coarse wool. The face is light brown with short, blunt ears. Animals have square compact body and long legs. Farmers also have liking for the long tail of animals for aesthetic purpose. The farmers like Malpura sheep for its properties like good mothering ability and produce sufficient milk to sustain and accelerate the growth of their neonates (Mishra et al., 2005), higher weight gain, number of lambs weaned, wool quality, walking capacity and the ease of management.

Livestock is an important source of income for the rural poor and marginal farmers which enables earn income and food security using common resources.It is a best option to utilize such waste resources in proper way to earn income. About 65-69% of Indian population consisting of small and marginal farmers and land less laborers reared animal as supplementary occupation by feeding their animals agriculture by products. Indian agriculture is very difficult to sustain without dairy animals. Per capita availability of milk comes out to 281gm per day, which is below than the average of 300gm recommended by Nutrition Council of ICMR. Thus, there is a further need to increase the milk production of the country in view of minimizing difference between per capita availability and requirement. Milk production in India has increased from a modest 22 million tons during 1970-1971 to about 122 million tons in 2011—2012 (Deptt. of Animal Husbandry and Dairying).

Linkage and Crossing Over

Crossing over may produce recombinant phenotypes.

Bateson and Punnett discovered two traits that did not assort independently.

Morgan provided evidence for the linkage of several X-linked genes and proposed that crossing over between X chromosomes can occur.

A chi square analysis can be used to distinguish between linkage and independent assortment.

Creighton and McClintock correlated crossing over that produced new combinations of alleles with the exchange of homologous chromosomes.

Crossing over occasionally occurs during mitosis. Genetic Mapping in Plants and Animals

The frequency of recombination between two genes can be correlated with their map distance along a chromosome

Alfred Sturtevant used the frequency of crossing over in dihybrid crosses to produce the first genetic map.

Trihybrid crosses can be used to determine the order and distance between linked genes.

Interference can influence the number of double crossovers that occur in a short region.

Genetic Transfer and Mapping in Bacteria

Bacteria can transfer genetic material during conjugation

Hfr strains contain an f factor integrated into the bacterial chromosome

Conjugation experiments can be used to map genes along the E. coli chromosome

A detailed genetic map of the E. coli chromosome has been obtained from many conjugation studies

Bacteriophages can also transfer genetic material from one bacterial cell to another in the process of transduction

Cotransduction can be used to map genes that are within 2 minutes of each other

Bacteria can also transfer genetic material by transformation

Horizontal gene transfer is the transfer of genes among different species

Poultry has been extensively used for various biological experiments and its contributions to science are impressive. Among poultry species, chickens have made fundamental contributions to our current understanding of many immunological processes and it ranks high in the biological world. It still serves as an animal model to investigate immunogenetic aspects of disease resistance and tumor regression. Among the major contribution from poultry, the first evidence for viral induced tumor came from chicken (Rous, 1911; Nobel prize, 1966), reverse transcriptase enzyme was isolated from Avian Leukosis virus (Tamin and Baltimore, 1963; Nobel Prize, 1975), oncogenes in virus are from host cells (Bishop & Harold Varmus; Nobel Prize, 1989) and major two arms of immune response i.e. the T and B cells were first discovered in chicken.

Introduction

India is a vast country comprised of different agro-ecological regions with diverse climate, natural vegetation resources, topography, possesses almost all domesticated animal species, landraces and crops with different production systems. Domestic animals provide a considerable amount of   food requirements for mankind. India ranks first in milk production with 112.5 million tonnes milk produced in 2010-11. As India is a tropical country, in summer the temperature hikes about 40-48°C in various parts of the country. Such a temperature is certainly not within the comfort range of animals and thus the animals respond to the stress imposed by temperature on them in various ways to combat the stress and to maintain the homeostasis.

Mastitis is a disease of the mammary gland caused by pathogens that find their way into the lumen of the gland through the teat canal. Our efforts have been focused on developing mastitis resistant dairy cattle for a variety of reasons. Firstly, mastitis is a significant detriment to agricultural productivity. Mastitis is on every dairy farm and affects both the production and post harvest segments of the dairy industry. It is clearly a global disease. Secondly, the incidence of mastitis has not declined appreciably since the implementation of the extensive antibiotic therapy and culling of infected animals. Thirdly, considerable effort has been expended in developing vaccines that have not been as efficacious as hoped. Given these past efforts it is far from certain that a truly effective vaccine will ever be realized. Finally, because of the low heritability of mastitis resistance selective breeding has not been a useful tool for combating mastitis. Additionally, there is a strong desire to reduce the on-farm use of those antibiotics that are also used in human medicine, and certainly not least is a desire to improve the welfare of our dairy animals.

Genetic Transfer and Mapping in Bacteria a

Bacteria can transfer genetic material during conjugation

Hfr strains contain an F factor integrated into the bacterial chromosome

Hfr strains can transfer a portion of the bacterial chromosome to recipient cells

Conjugation experiments can map genes along the E. coli chromosome

A genetic map of the E. coli chromosome has been obtained from many conjugation studies

Bacteria may contain different types of plasmids

Bacteriophages transfer genetic material from one bacterial cell to another via transduction

Cotransduction can be used to map genes that are within 2 minutes of each other

Bacteria can also transfer genetic material by transformation

Bacteria may acquire new genes by horizontal gene transfer

Introduction
Prenatal development is a crucial phase in the life of an organism during which the foundation for its future health and survival is established. In animals, the prenatal development is influenced by a complex interaction of genetic, chromosomal and environmental factors. These factors play a pivotal role in determining the phenotype, viability and overall health of the developing organism. The abnormalities of the structure or function of cells, tissues or organs present at birth are termed as congenital defects. These developmental defects can be caused by genetic, chromosomal and environmental factors.
A. Genetic Factors
Genes are the fundamental units of inheritance and their expression controls the development and functioning of all living organisms. In prenatal development, genetic factors provide the blueprint on which the formation and differentiation of tissues and organs is depend. These factors influence a range of developmental processes which include the timing and coordination of cell division and the development of specific structures.
1. Gene Expression and Regulation: Proper gene expression and regulation are essential for normal prenatal development. Genes are activated or suppressed at specific times during development and the precise regulation of these genes ensures the correct formation of tissues and organs. The mutations in key developmental genes can lead to malformations or developmental disorders.
2. Inherited Traits and Developmental Variation: Inherited genetic traits can influence the rate of prenatal development and the eventual size and characteristics of the offspring. For example, certain breeds of animals have genetic predispositions for faster growth rates, larger body sizes or distinct physical features which are evident even during prenatal development. Selective breeding practices in domesticated animals often aim to enhance these traits but they can also accidently introduce genetic disorders or vulnerabilities.
3. Epigenetic Modifications: Epigenetic factors such as DNA methylation and histone modifications also plays a crucial role in regulating gene expression during

MENDEL’S RULES OF GENETICS DO NOT ALWAYS WORK

Mendel’s rules:

Segregation of alleles

Independent assortment of genes for different characters

Hold for characters:

Which have dominant & recessive traits

Determined by single genes

Genes are on separate chromosomes

Different types of chromosomes, or

Different homologues of same type of chromosome

These conditions are not always met, so there are many complications

BACTERIA HAVE SMALL, COMPACT GENOMES

We now know the complete DNA sequences for about a dozen bacteria

Bacteria seem to need about 500 to 5000 genes to conduct their lives

Because they are small, bacterial genomes are highly organized

Most of the time there are only a few bases between the end of one gene and the beginning of the next

Few introns are found in bacteria

Bacteria contain accessory “chromosomes” called plasmids; each has only a few genes

Genetic Analysis of Diseases

A genetic basis for a human diseases may be suggested from a variety of observations

Inheritance patterns of human diseases may be determined via pedigree analysis

Many genetic disorders are heterogeneous

Genetic testing can identify many inherited human diseases

Prions are infectious particles that alter protein function posttranslationally

Viruses are much simpler than cells

Protein capsid

Genetic information stored on DNA or RNA:

Types of genome:

Double strand DNA: sometimes circular

Single strand DNA: sometimes circular

Double strand RNA

Single strand RNA

Some can be crystallized

Uses of Microorganisms in Biotechnology

Somatostatin was the first human peptide hormone produced by recombinant bacteria

Many important medicines are produced by recombinant microorganisms

Bacterial species can be used as biological control agents

The release of recombinant microorganisms into the environment is sometimes controversial

Microorganisms can reduce environmental pollutants

Introduction

The expanding number of people around the world necessitates an increase in the amount of food that is yielded. As stated by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), global food production ought to be ramped up by a factor of two in the next few years in to meet the requirements of the growing global population in terms of consumption (FAO, 2006). This is because the global population is expected to continue growing at a rate of approximately one person every two seconds until the year 2050. It is possible that the predicted production disparity could be filled by making improvements in genetics, animal health, and the excellence of animal husbandry.

The production of animals has expanded significantly over the course of the last several decades as a direct result of the application of quantitative genetics in animal breeding. However, due to technological limitations, the use of genetic markers in breeding programmes has only been implemented to a relatively small extent (Deng et al., 2016). The concept of genomic prediction, which was first introduced approximately twenty years ago, has completely transformed the planning and execution of animal breeding operations.