eChapters

The history of genetics dates from the classical era with contributions by Hippocrates, Aristotle and Epicurus. Modern biology began with the work of the Augustinian friar Gregor Johann Mendel. His work on pea plants, published in 1866, what is now Mendelian inheritance. Some theories of heredity suggest in the centuries before and for several decades after Mendel›s work. The year 1900 marked the “rediscovery of Mendel” by Hugo de Vries, Carl Correns and Erich von Tschermak, and by 1915 the basic principles of Mendelian genetics had been applied to a wide variety of organisms—most notably the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster. Led by Thomas Hunt Morgan and his fellow «drosophilists», geneticists developed the Mendelian model, which was widely accepted by 1925. Alongside experimental work, mathematicians developed the statistical framework of population genetics, bringing genetic explanations into the study of evolution.
With the basic patterns of genetic inheritance established, many biologists turned to investigations of the physical nature of the gene. In the 1940s and early 1950s, experiments pointed to DNA as the portion of chromosomes (and perhaps other nucleoproteins) that held genes. A focus on new model organisms such as viruses and bacteria, along with the discovery of the double helical structure of DNA in 1953, marked the transition to the era of molecular genetics.
In the following years, chemists developed techniques for sequencing both nucleic acids and proteins, while others worked out the relationship between the two forms of biological molecules: the genetic code. The regulation of gene expression became a central issue in the 1960s; by the 1970s gene expression could be controlled and manipulated through genetic engineering. In the last decades of the 20th century, many biologists focused on large-scale genetics projects, sequencing entire genomes.
Pre Mendelian Ideas on Heredity
Diagram of Charles Darwin’s pangenesis theory. Every part of the body emits tiny particles, gemmules, which migrate to the gonads and contribute to the fertilised egg and so to the next generation. The theory implied that changes to the body during an organism’s life would be inherited, as proposed in Lamarckism. Mendel’s work

Abstract

The knowledge of programming language(s) is necessary to solve biocomputational problems and also understand the data pattern. Computer programming is used to develop software to extract information from data which is very crucial while practicing bioinformatics. Programming language is a man-made, computer-understandable, artificial language, that is designed to instruct a machine, particularly a computer to get the desired output. This chapter briefly narrates the concept of algorithms, programming languages, and the historical perspective of the same.

Abstract

When only sequence data is available, homology modeling has become a useful tool for predicting protein structure. Protein structure is often more important than sequence data when evaluating protein function. Homology modeling, also known as comparative modeling, is based on the principle that two sequences that exhibit a high degree of identity or similarity will also share similar structures. This chapter explores the steps involved in homology modeling, including template selection, alignment, model building, refinement, and validation. The Ramachandran plot is a valuable tool for assessing the conformation and bond angles in a protein model, and we discuss its significance in the context of homology modeling. Ultimately, homology modeling is an effective method for predicting protein structure and has numerous applications in protein engineering, drug discovery, and other fields.

Introduction

In the perspective of the accelerating national growth rate of 8% recorded at the end of the 10th Plan to a projected growth rate of 10% by the end of the 11th Plan, yielding an average GDP growth rate of about 9% it was appearing that the nation is going to have a strong footing of development. However, it could not be fully achieved due to several reasons including the global recession and other factors related to international economic setback which may deter achieving a projected growth rate of 10% in the 12th Plan. In consideration of the international scenario of growing complicacy in economic growth more emphasis should be given on further efficient utilization of natural resources and intellectual properties of grass root innovators to improve per capita income leading to a promising national structure of economics ensuring wide spread benefits to the society. In this regard, true development of a nation like India can be primarily realized by recognition of wide spread enthusiasm of its innovative human resources living in village and rural areas. It can be made possible only through working with them by appreciating their struggle for survival using all round innovative measures coming out of their daily life experiences and traditional knowledge. Technopreneur Promotion Programme (TePP) is a unique scheme of Government of India for development of society especially by promoting the intellectual properties of grass- root level innovators coming out from the society with a source of inspiration arising out of their daily life struggle for existence. In spite of its limited publicity in remote areas an awareness of this programme has often been found to raise great hope to the villagers to do something for their society exploring the ideas generated from the experiences of life with the help of local resources. Such naturally grown innovation can be found undoubtedly novel and the idea can change their world of dreaming for a more prosperous life by bringing changes in socioeconomic pattern of trade and employment in rural areas with proper support from Government if India through the scheme like TePP.

The number of hormones secreted by the body exhibits control over the physiological regulation of glucose sugar level (homeostasis) in the manner needed by the body. Depending upon the situation, hormones may increase or decrease the level of glucose sugar present in the blood or tissues. The glucose is oxidized to yield energy, carbon dioxide, and water.
Glucose, more than the body’s needs, is stored or converted mainly to glycogen and, to some extent, protein and fat. If glucose is less than the need of the body, its denovo synthesis takes place from amino acids or fatty acids, or is formed from the breakdown of stored glycogen. Various hormones are secreted by multiple endocrine glands to control the blood glucose level. If it fails, it leads to hypoglycemia or hyperglycemia conditions. Gluconeogenesis is not developed at birth in the case of a baby pig. Therefore, hypoglycemia in baby pigs is observed within 2 days of age if starved, leading to hypoglycemia, weakness, confusion, and death.
15.1 The Hormones Involved in Homeostatic Regulation of Blood
Glucose Level
The hormones influencing carbohydrate metabolism are explained below:

In some developing countries, milk from horses (Equus caballus) and donkeys (Equus asinus) is an essential food for poor farmers. Generally, horses are more commonly used for dairy purposes in cool areas and donkeys in dry semi-arid regions. Milking equines is time-consuming and has to be repeated five or six times a day. In addition, an equine will not release milk unless it is stimulated by the presence of its foal. Mare’s milk is commonly consumed in the steppe areas of Central Asia, where a traditional lactic-alcoholic beverage called koumiss is produced through fermentation. Horse milk is also an important source of animal protein for pastoralists in Mongolia. The consumption of donkey milk has become very marginal. In some African communities, donkey milk is consumed for medical purposes.

Equus is a genus of mammals in the family Equidae, which includes horses, asses, and zebras. Within the Equidae, Equus is the only recognized existing genus, comprising seven living species. Like Equidae more broadly, Equus has numerous extinct species recognized only from fossils. Equines are odd-toed ungulates with slender legs, long heads, relatively long necks, manes (erect in most subspecies), and long tails. All species are herbivorous, and mostly grazers, with simpler digestive systems than ruminants but able to subsist on lower-quality vegetation. The chromosome number of a horse is 64 (2n).

Abstract

Thermophiles mainly harbor in highly temperate environments such as hydrothermal vents, hot springs, fumaroles etc. The main importance of thermophiles is due to their thermostable proteins, enzymes and their adaptive mechanisms at higher temperature which are very useful for industrial applications. The main rationale behind this research was to isolate industrially important thermophilic bacteria from the Hot Springs of Sikkim which can be used as tools for genetic engineering and vector based research activities.

True/False

Q.1.    Qualitative or categorical data are frequently collected in medical investigation.
Q.2.    Qualitative variables may be, e.g. sex, blood type, treatment, groups, classification of exposure or disease and patients survived or not.
Q.3.    Qualitative variables include the grouped quantitative variables such as age groups of mothers, pre term babies, birth weight groups, 
hypertensive or normotensive etc.

10.1 Learning Objectives
After reading this chapter, you will be able to:
i) Understand the concept and types of hypotheses in hypothesis testing;
ii) Differentiate between one-tailed and two-tailed tests and recognize their applications;
iii) Grasp the implications of Type I and Type II errors in hypothesis testing;
iv) Explore the significance level and its connection to confidence limits;
v) Understand the concept of degrees of freedom in hypothesis testing;
vi) Familiarize yourself with the stepwise approach to hypothesis testing for effective application.

10.2 Introduction

In this chapter, we explore the fundamental concept of hypothesis testing, a cornerstone in statistical analysis. We begin by exploring the nature of hypotheses and their types, distinguishing between one-tailed and two-tailed tests and understanding their respective applications. We then explain the intricacies of Type I and Type II errors, crucial pitfalls to avoid in hypothesis testing. Additionally, we probe into the significance level, its relationship to confidence limits, and its role in determining the strength of our conclusions. Furthermore, we explain the concept of degrees of freedom, an essential factor in hypothesis testing that affects the reliability of our results. Finally, we guide you through a stepwise approach to hypothesis testing, ensuring a comprehensive understanding and effective application of these concepts in practical scenarios. Through this journey, you will not only grasp the mechanics but also appreciate the profound impact of hypothesis testing in drawing meaningful conclusions from data in our data-driven society.

We can categorize statistical theory into two general parts.

1. Firstly, there is descriptive statistics which uses the appropriate tools, typically tables, diagrams and/or numerical measures, to describe a data set and provide a summary of its distribution.

2. In addition, there is inferential statistics which is concerned with drawing conclusions about a population using information obtained from a representative sample selected from it.

(a) One aspect of statistical inference is the estimation of a population parameter by the appropriate sample statistic (e.g. the population mean by the sample mean).

(b) The second aspect of inferential statistics is hypothesis testing. In this case, we examine a hypothesis, framed in terms of the parameters in one or more populations.

Estimation is concerned with description whereas hypothesis testing is ultimately concerned with decision.

Basic concepts of hypothesis testing

Hypothesis testing is a process that is concerned with making conclusions about the population using the information obtained from its sample.

Introduction

Minerals are present in all body tissues and fluids to carry out the physicochemical processes of life; both in animals and human. It is broadly classified into two categories: (1) macro and (ii) micro or trace elements. The macro elements include calcium, phosphorus, potassium, magnesium, sulfur, sodium and chloride, while elements such as iron, copper, cobalt, iodine, zinc, manganese, molybdenum, selenium and chromium come under micro elements. Animals need large amounts of calcium for construction and maintenance of bone and normal function of nerves and muscles. Phosphorus is a vital constituent of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) and nucleic acid and is also essential for acid-base balance, bone and tooth formation. Iron is an important component of the cytochromes for carrying out cellular respiration in addition to its vital role in red blood cells. Magnesium, copper, selenium, zinc, iron, manganese and molybdenum are important co-factors found in the structure of certain enzymes and are indispensable in numerous biochemical pathways. Animals need iodine to make thyroid hormones. Sodium, potassium and chlorine are important in the maintenance of osmotic balance between cells and the interstitial fluid. Excessive intake of some minerals can upset homeostatic balance and cause toxic side effects.

A cell culture laboratory should allow the sterile handling of cultured cells with no or minimum level of contamination. The growth of bacteria and fungi is very high and no level of contamination can be allowed in animal cell culture. However, it is impractical to design a laboratory free from potentially contaminated microorganism. Further, it is possible to establish a laboratory with minimal risk of contamination. Several points should be taken into consideration while designing a new cell culture laboratory.

Introduction

Immunology deals with the body defence system consisting of various cells and biomolecules that prevents entry of foreign infectious and toxic agents by different mechanisms. The mammalian immune system operates in two ways like innate or non specific immunity and adaptive or acquired or specific immunity. Innate part constitutes the physical (skin, hair, tears and mucous secretions) containing enzymes that prevents primarily entry of pathogen. It is the first line of defence action, very fast but not adequate. Adaptive form constitutes defensive cells and secreted immunoglobulins. It takes time to develop effectively, especially when the body sees the organism for the first time. Immunoglobulins (Ig) or antibodies are a group of proteins produced from B lymphocytes and plasma cells in response to the presence of any foreign substances. They are 5 basic types like M, A, G, E and D each with specific function. The system can produce antibody molecules, directed to about 1 million different kinds of antigens. All immunoglobulins have a similar basic structure.

The evolution process took millions of years to develop human and animals on the top of the hierarchy. It has moved forward due to ability to survive the various deadly diseases as for the survival of any leaving creature, it have to overcome the threat posed by the pathogens surviving in its environment and most of the time in its close vicinity. These microbes are smarter than us and are the best example of the survival of the fittest. To overcome these, nature has provided defense system to all leaving creatures that neutralize the invasion of pathogens or undesired microbes. The concept is based on the detection of self and nonself molecules.

ABSTRACT

This paper is an attempt to analyze the plausible impacts on the economy and social issues of developing countries with reference to enforcement of IPR.

Introduction

From commodity based nature, business has changed during the past hundred years in a way that ideas and knowledge have taken higher value than commodities. Today, many companies find their most valuable assets being intangible and they are therefore dependent on functioning IPR systems. But does the rigid protection of IPR serve all the people in our globalized world? The purpose of this paper is to discuss the impact of the introduction of IPR protection on developing and under developed countries in the light of TRIPS Agreement.

Introduction
Reproduction involves the intricate interplay of physiological processes to ensure the successful growth and development of the embryo and fetus. Three key processes— implantation, placentation, and the establishment of fetal circulation—are fundamental to a viable pregnancy. These stages ensure the fetus receives adequate nutrients, oxygen, and support for development. Below is a detailed elaboration of each process.
1. Implantation
Implantation is the process by which the blastocyst (a hollow structure formed in the early development of mammals) embeds itself into the uterine wall. It is the first critical step in establishing a pregnancy.
Phases of Implantation
1. Apposition: The blastocyst loosely attaches to the endometrium (the inner lining of the uterus).
2. Adhesion: The trophoblast cells (outer layer of the blastocyst) firmly attach to the uterine lining.
3. Invasion: The trophoblast differentiates into two layers: Cytotrophoblast: The inner cellular layer that serves as the proliferative zone. Syncytiotrophoblast: The outer multinucleated layer that invades the endometrium, facilitating deeper embedding.
Significance
Implantation typically occurs 6–10 days after fertilization.
It ensures the establishment of an early connection between the embryo and maternal blood supply.
Successful implantation depends on hormonal regulation, especially the roles of estrogen and progesterone, which prepare the endometrium to be receptive.