eChapters

Introduction

Recognizing the importance and impact initiatives were taken for starting National Horticulture Mission, announced by Honorable Prime Minister on 15 August 2003. Crop diversification has become an imperative for India’s agri-economy. To address this need and to give further impetus to encouraging growth in cultivation of horticultures, vegetables, flowers, species etc. a National Horticultural Mission has been launched. Its main target will be doubling India;s horticultural production by 2010. Sub sequentially, National Horticuture Mission was launched during Tenth Plan with effect from 2005 2006 for holistic development of horticultural crops, having competitive advantages.

Introduction

Poultry rearing in North East is very popular as backyard venture and is an inseparable part of poor tribal people of this region.  Majority of birds reared in backyard yard system are indigenous nondescript in which growth and production is very low (60-70 eggs per bird per annum; 2.5 kg. and 1.5 kg. body weight per bird in males and females, respectively). Due to this reason, the per capita availability of egg and meat is too low as compared to recommended allowance, particularly in rural areas. Moreover, the agriculture of N.E. region is characterized by monocropping system. The system of cropping is not suitable for providing round the year farm income. Therefore, most of farmers of this region rearing pig, goat and poultry in the back yard of their house to support their livelihood throughout the year. The N.E. region is most suitable for rural poultry production having plenty of natural foods i.e. good greenery through out the year, insects and other food resources.  Rural poultry production also has an appreciable advantage of being easy to raise, low input and higher reproduction. Rural poultry farming utilizing surplus coarse grains, kitchen waste and greenery and converting them into protein rich human food and valuable manure.  The manure obtained from poultry having more essential nutrients Nitrogen (three times the cattle manure), Phosphorus, Potash, Magnesium, Sodium and Calcium plus trace minerals, which are very essential for soil fertility and texture.

For a researcher, laboratory is another home where he/she spends much time every day. As we take care of cleanliness, safety, and design of our home, we must take care on these aspects of laboratory too. It is the responsibility of the laboratory personnel to ensure cleanliness/safety of the laboratory. Since every laboratory chemical and equipment have the potential to cause harms if not used with appropriate precautions. Hence, as a laboratory user, it is our responsibility to follow the basic safety/biosafety rules and regulations set up by the Principal Investigator of the laboratory, Institutional Biosafety Committee, as well as by other regulatory authorities, if any. We must be aware of the general/personal protective measures, cleanliness and laboratory waste disposal prior to joining a research laboratory. In this chapter we will briefly discuss about personal safety, chemical safety, cleanliness, waste disposal, etc.

A. Personal Safety

1. Personal Protective Equipment (PPE)

Personal protective equipment (PPE) is special arrangement to protect the worker from specific hazards because of using a hazardous substance. PPE does not reduce or eliminate the hazard, but protects the wearer from exposure to hazardous material. PPE should not be reused or brought outside the laboratory as these might increase the risk of spread hazardous material or contamination. Used PPE must be kept inside the laboratory in a designated waste storage area adjacent to the work area.

True/False

Q.1.    The precision of an estimator increases as the sample size increases.
Q.2.    Statistical power is the probability that a statistical test will indicate a significant difference is true i.e. it is the probability of taking correct decision.

Important Definitions

• Sampling method or sampling technique is the process of studying the population by gathering information (on basis of samples) and analyzing that data.

• Population: The whole group we are interested in census.

• Census: A collection of data from the whole population

• Sample: A collection of data from part of the population

• Parameter Vs Statistics: Parameter is statistical measure pertaining to population whereas statistics is measure pertaining to sample.

• Estimate-Value of population parameter obtained from sample.

• Livestock census carried every 5 years (2019-20th livestock census)

True/False

Q.1.    Collectivity (totality) of all sampling units is known as the “Population” and population size is denoted by “N”.
Q.2.    A list of all sampling units with their identification is known as “Sampling frame”. For example a list of all newly-born children in maternity home during a period of three months with specification of their sex, weight, name of their parents, their permanent address, etc. is known as sampling frame.
Q.3.    A function of all sampling units in the population is known as population parameter or population constant.

9.1 Learning Objectives
After completing this chapter, you should be able to:
i) Understand the concept of Sample, Population, Sampling Frame, Sample Size, etc.;
ii) Differentiate between Probability and Non-Probability Sampling methods;
iii) Understand the various methods of sampling;
iv) Recognize Sampling and Non-Sampling errors;
v) Determine Sample Size.

A sample is just a part of a population selected according to some rule or plan. Following are some of the methods of sampling.

1. Simple Random Sampling

The simplest and the most commonly used type of probability sampling is simple random sampling. In this kind of sampling, each member of the population has the same probability of being included in the sample. Simple random sampling may be with or without replacement.

Population: The word population or universe in statistics means a set of observations relating to a phenomenon under investigation.

Sample: It is a fraction or a subset of population drawn through a valid statistical procedure so that it can be regarded as representative of the entire population.

Sampling: The statistical procedure of drawing a sample from the population is called Sampling.

Census enquiry or complete enumeration: When each and every unit of the population is investigated for the characteristic under study, known as census enquiry or complete enquiry.

Sample enquiry or sample enumeration: It is a part of the population is investigated for the characteristic under study, known as sample enquiry or sample enumeration.

Necessity of sampling: Since, the process of collecting information from all the elements of a large population may be, in general, expensive, time consuming and difficult. We help to sampling and generalise the properties of the sample to the entire population. The statistical procedures which are used for drawing inferences or conclusions about the population from sample data are covered under Inferential Statistics or Statistical inference. Thus, sampling theory is the basis of statistical inference in which we wish to obtain maximum information about the population with minimum effort and maximum precision.

2.1 Learning Objectives
After completing this chapter, you should be able to:
i) Understand the concept and importance of nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio scales;
ii) Identify the characteristics and uses of each scale type;
iii) Learn to select the right scale for different data and research needs;
v) Recognize the properties and tests for each scale’s adequacy;
v) Understand the challenges and limitations of using different scales;
vi) Stay updated on recent advancements in scale development;
vii) Apply nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio scales in research with practical examples and calculations;
viii) Understand different types of data structure.

Small volume cultures are useful for experiments such as studying cell morphology, titration of viruses, plaque assay, pock assay, SNT and to compare the effect of agents on growth and metabolism. However, there are other application where there is a need of large number of cells such as extraction of DNA/RNA from cells, production of viruses for vaccine production and a number of products namely interferons, interleukins, hormones, enzymes, antibodies, glycoproteins etc. The large quantity of cells can be obtained by using a large number of flasks/bottles but it is tedius, labour intensive, expensive and there is a risk of contiamination. Although the unit processes are more cost effective and efficient, it needs some modification to overcome limiting factors such as oxygen depletion, shear damage and metabolic toxicity. There are a number of aberrations available to scale up cell culture described below.

Spontaneous contractions of the uterus are controlled and coordinated for various reproductive functions. The non-pregnant uterus facilitates ova and sperm transport, provides adequate embryo placement for implantation, and contributes to the expulsion of menstrual debris through increased contractility, or periods of relative quiescence (Hutchings et al., 2009). Uterine dysmotility has been implicated in the pathogenesis of certain infertilities, implantation failure, endometriosis, dysmenorrhea, and abnormal menstrual events (Kunz and Leyendecker, 2002; Aguilar and Mitchell, 2010). Although these conditions may not contribute to mortality but can significantly affect patient’s reproductive health, and considerably alter their quality of life (Jones et al., 2004; Weissman et al., 2004; Chachamovich et al., 2010). Dysmenorrhoea refers to the occurrence of painful cramps in the lower abdominal region during menstruation and is one of the unresolved gynecological disorders in adolescent girls and women of reproductive age (Wang et al., 2004; Harel, 2008). This condition is mainly characterized by cramping pain in the lower abdomen immediately before or during menstruation, which does affect the quality of their life and work (Davis and Westhoff, 2001).

Principle

The SDS polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (PAGE) performs:

Separation of proteins according to their molecular weight

Ascertain whether a given protein is actually present in a sample,

Assessment of purity of the preparation

Estimation of the approximate quantity of the protein, and

Measurement of the size of the protein.

Selection is an important tool for changing gene frequencies to better fit individuals for a particular purpose. It may be defined as a process in which certain individuals in a population are preferred to others for the production of the next generation. Selection is of two kinds

Principle

Cloning experiments would be very difficult if we do not screen those very few cells that took up the recombinant plasmid DNA, as the transformation efficiency is very low as stated before (usually less than 1 in 10⁵ cells). Hence it is necessary that there should be a selection mechanism (i.e. conditions where cells grow if they express a gene, but die if they do not) to sort out which are transformed cells and which are not make the job easy.

A commonly used selection mechanism is antibiotic resistance. If the E. coli strain used is not resistant to the antibiotic, but the plasmid DNA contains a gene coding for resistance, then only the cells that have taken up the plasmid will be able to grow. Most commonly used plasmids contain a gene for resistance to ampicillin; only cells that have taken up the plasmid will be able to grow and form colonies.

Note: Uptake of plasmid DNA is rare; hence each group of cells visible on a plate represents the offspring of a single cell that will contain a single molecule of plasmid DNA.

Combining Ability Estimation
Crosses made in a definite fashion are a prerequisite for combining ability estimation. Estimated by half-sib (GCA) and full-sib (SCA) mating. Various steps like parent selection for crosses, performing crosses, their evaluation, and interpretation are involved while estimating of combining ability. For analysis of crosses, biometrical techniques like diallel analysis, partial diallel, and Line x tester analysis are used. If GCA variance is higher than SCA variance the importance of AGA & parent selection will be effective for the improvement of such traits. If SCA variance is higher than GCA variance there is importance of NAGA( dominance & epistasis) & Heterosis breeding may be rewarding. If GCA=SCA variance then AGA & NAGA are equally important in the expression of character, In this situation reciprocal recurrent selection may be adopted for population improvement.
Selection for GCA
General combining ability (GCA) is the average value of the inbred line based on its behavior in crosses with other lines. The mean performance of the line is expressed as deviation from the mean of all crosses.GCA is owing to the activity of genes which are largely additive in their effects as well as additive × additive interactions.

One of the objectives of experiments in cultivators’ field is to test technology for adoption in a targeted area i.e. NARP Zone, or a district. In that case interaction between district x treatment within a zone or between blocks x treatment within a district should not be significant. If the targeted area is a district, an experiment in cultivators’ fields must occur in at least two blocks. Also, if the targeted area is a zone, an experiment should occur in at least two districts in order to estimate interaction.

Analysis of cultivators’ field experiment

The on-farm trials were conducted in 25 villages on kharif rice during 1992-93. The treatments viz. T1-Farmers’ practice with local variety, T2-Farmers’ practice with improved variety, T3-Farmers’ practice with improved variety +recommended fertilizer and T4-Improved practice with improved variety +recommended fertilizer. Farmers level of NPK fertilizer was 40:0:0 and local variety was Suzata while recommended NPK fertilizer was 80:40:20.

General Selection Procedures for Dairy Breeds
Selection of Dairy Cows
Selecting a calf in calf show, a cow in cattle show by judging is an art. A dairy farmer should build up his own herd by breeding his own herd. Following guidelines will beuseful for selection of a diary cow. Whenever an animal is purchased from cattle fair, it should be selected based upon its breed characters and milk producing.
History sheet or pedigree sheet which are generally maintained in organized farmsreveals the complete history of animal.The maximum yield by dairy cows are noticed during the first five lactations. So generally selection should be carried out during First or Second lactation and thattoo are month after calving.?Three successive complete milkings has to be done and an average of it will givea fair idea regarding production by a particular animal.
A cow should allow anybody to milk, and should be docile.?It is better to purchase the animals during the months of October and November.?Maximum yield is noticed till 90 days after calving.

Background

Sheep and goats are the poor man’s cow because of the lower capital investment, and production costs. Also supplies milk quantities that are suitable for immediate household consumption thereby reducing problems of milk storage and marketing. Small ruminants, goats and sheep, mainly localized in the arid, semi-arid and mountainous areas of the country, have multi-faceted utility in terms of wool, meat, milk, skins, (mo)hair/pelts, manure and have also acquired socio-cultural niches in many communities (Kosgey and Okeyo, 2007). Goat and sheep milk has many advantages over other livestock species’ milk being easy in digestion, non-allergic, naturally homogenized, improves immunity as it has antifungal and anti-bacterial properties. However, rearing small ruminants for meat is more popular among farmers as price of chevon and mutton are very high, continuously increasing over the years and sale of male for meat is easy, steady and accessible at farmer’s place or local places unlike milk, skin and fibre. Thus, small ruminants (SR) occupy a promising agrarian and economic niche in low to medium input production systems, not suitable for growing crops and dairy farming (Devendra and Chantalakhana, 2002), mostly driven by small and marginal farmers and landless laborers. Their meat and milk production represents 4.8% and 3.4% of the total meat and milk produced, respectively, in the world.

Natural Selection
In nature, the main force responsible for selection is of interest because of its apparent effectiveness and because of principles involved. Some of the most interesting cases of natural selection are those involving man himself. All races of man that now exist belong to the same species, because the races are interfile or have been in all instances where mating have been made between them. All races of man now in existence had a common origin and at one time probably all man had the some kind of skim pigmentation – which kind we have no sure way of knowing. As the number of generations of man increased, mutations occurred in the genes affecting pigmentation of the skin causing genetic variations in this trait over a range from light to dark or black.
Natural selection is a very complicated process and many factors determine the proportion of individuals that will reproduce. Among these factors are differences in mortality of the individuals in the population especially early in life, differences in the duration of the period of sexual activity and in the degree of sexual activity itself and the differences in the degree of fertility of individuals in the population. They are also examples of adaptive evolution.