eChapters

In Vedas the cow has been regarded as the mother of Rudras, the daughter of Vashu and the sister of Aditayas and also the use of cow ghee in religious ceremonies had been mentioned in Rig Veda and there is mention of the cow as “Kam Dhenu” in ancient writings. In Shiva temples are found the references of sculpture of “Nandi Bulls”. In Hindu mythology, the male buffalo thought to be the vehicle of the God of death “Yama” and also regarded as physical form of the demon Mahishasur, a symbol of inertia-”Tamas”.

The best environment for growing cells is similar to  the conditions what they experience in vivo. A number of various environmental factors affecting the tissues are :
 
    (1)    Temperature : In living matter, complicated chemical reactions are happened at comparatively low temperature.  In most of the mammalian and avian tissues the temperature  is 37^ºC to 38.5^ºC. If the temperature is enhanced to 45^ºC, cells are destroyed within  an hour but survive 12-24 hours at 42^ºC. It is applicable to most of the fibroblasts and epithelial  types of cells arising  from  mammalian tissues. Some of the mammalian cells ( human skin epithelial cells)  and amphibian cells  prefer lower temperature but fish tissue will not survive beyond 20^ºC.

The term “artificial intelligence” (AI) refers to a wide variety of theories and technologies that are used to the resolution of issues characterized by a high level of logical or algorithmic complexity. It cuts across a wide range of f ields, such as mechanical modeling, software engineering, data science, and statistics. Many artificial intelligence (AI) technologies, which first appeared in the 1950s, have lately been refined or extended thanks to advances in computer performance. Recent advancements have been made possible by the creation of interfaces between artificial intelligence and other fields of study, such as biomedicine, and by the collection of enormous amounts of data from a variety of fields, notably those related with the healthcare industry. First, Artificial intelligence helps with situational awareness, which is relevant in animal health and animal husbandry because it allows for the detection of patterns like repeated sequences of observations, forms like a protein, and signals like increased mortality especially in comparison to a baseline at various scales. A third option is computer-based decision making, or more practically, human decision support via knowledge - based systems, diagnostic support, and resource allocation, for instance.

The International Union for the Protection of New Varieties of Plants or UPOV is an intergovernmental organization with headquarters in Geneva, Switzerland. UPOV was established by the International Convention. The objective of the Convention is the protection of new varieties of plants by an intellectual property right. The Convention was adopted in Paris in 1961 and revised in 1972, 1978 and 1991. UPOV aims to encourage the development of new varieties of plants for the benefit of society by codifying intellectual property for plant breeders.

Evolution of the Internet

The Internet, as we know it today had a very humble beginning. J C R Licklider of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology envisioned the Internet as far back as 1962 in a series of memos written by him that talked about social interactions that could be enabled through networking, a concept that he termed his “Galactic Network”. He joined DARPA (Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency) in October 1962 and was its first research head. There, in collaboration with Lawrence G Roberts and other scientists in 1965, the ARPANET (Advanced Research Projects Agency Network) was conceived. With other developments, ARPANET was transformed into the Internet as we know it today. The technology involved in this was a very basic packet switching network that later moved to include packet satellite networks, ground-based packet radio networks and other networks. In packet switching mode, the hub router, which acts as the intermediary, decides the best path for sending or receiving data packets, unlike circuit switching mode (used in telephony) in which there is a dedicated path by which the data travels from the source to the destination.

The future of networking was based on this skeleton. Further down the line, the TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol) was developed, which had the ability to address networks and machines further downstream. Other technologies like telnet, e-mail, internet telephony etc, were also developed subsequently. By 1990, the ARPANET was decommissioned and TCP/IP had displaced most other Wide Area Networking (WAN) protocols and was fast becoming the accepted protocol for internetworking. After a while, the World Wide Web (WWW) came into existence. A consortium called the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) was formed in 1992 and it had taken on the responsibility for evolving the various protocols and standards associated with the web. Soon after this, commercialization of the internet started taking place. There was a marked increase in the number of communities across the internet. Bulletin Board Services and Usenet groups were now home to more computer users than ever before. With the advent of such information, corporations and businesses also started looking at the internet in terms of business viability. In 1994, Pizza Hut started offering pizza ordering on its Web page while First Virtual, the first ‘cyberbank’, launched its online presence. By this time, there were more than 38,64,000 hosts on the Internet. Since then, the Net has grown rapidly and the process continues to this day.

Though the Internet hit India in the late 1980s, it was deemed fit only for researchers and scientists. Commercial internet access was first introduced by VSNL in August 1995. Today internet in India has ballooned and India has become a giant in the IT Enabled Services (ITES) field. With falling internet access costs and increasing users, India’s ranking in terms of internet users is rising fast.

The Internet is growing at an amazing rate. The main reason for this is that the Internet has now become an accepted part of the mainstream urban life. It is used for almost everything imaginable, from recreation and entertainment to learning about rocket science. However, not everything about is good. There is an information overload and not all the data that is available is true and should not be accepted at face value. The internet is not limited to the PC anymore and has percolated down to various devices thanks to advancement in technologies like GPRS, EDGE, CDMA, WiFi etc. through which it can be accessed with a mobile device.

To understand how population genetics came into being, and to appreciate its intellectual significance, a brief excursion into the history of biology is necessary. Darwin’s Origin of Species, published in 1859, propounded two main theses: firstly, that modern species were descended from common ancestors, and secondly that the process of natural selection was the major mechanism of evolutionary change. The first thesis quickly won acceptance in the scientific community, but the second did not. Many people found it difficult to accept that natural selection could play the explanatory role required of it by Darwin’s theory. This situation— accepting that evolution had happened but doubting Darwin’s account of what had caused it to happen—persisted well into the twentieth century (Bowler 1988).
Opposition to natural selection was understandable, for Darwin’s theory, though compelling, contained a major lacuna: an account of the mechanism of inheritance. For evolution by natural selection to occur, it is necessary that parents should tend to resemble their offspring; otherwise, fitness-enhancing traits will have no tendency to spread through a population. In the Origin, Darwin rested his argument on the observed fact that offspring do tend to resemble their parents—‘the strong principle of inheritance’—while admitting that he did not know why this was. Darwin did later attempt an explicit theory of inheritance, based on hypothetical entities called ‘gemmules’, but it turned out to have no basis in fact.
Darwin was troubled by not having a proper understanding of the inheritance mechanism, for it left him unable to rebut a powerful objection to his theory. For a population to evolve by natural selection, the members of the population must vary—if all organisms are identical, no selection can occur. So for selection to gradually modify a population over a long period of time, in the manner suggested by Darwin, a continual supply of variation is needed. Fleeming Jenkin argued that the available variation would be used up too fast (Jenkin 1867). His reasoning assumed a ‘blending’ theory of inheritance, i.e., that an offspring’s phenotypic traits are a ‘blend’ of those of its parents. (So, for example, if a short and a tall organism mate, the height of the offspring will be intermediate between the two.) Jenkin argued that given blending inheritance, a sexually reproducing population will become phenotypically homogenous in just a few generations, far shorter than the number of generations needed for natural selection to produce complex adaptations.

Theoretical Probability Distribution

Many random variables associated with statistical experiments have similar properties, and as such can be described by the same probability functions. The distribution obtained from a theoretical listing of outcomes and probabilities, which can be described by a mathematical formula representing same phenomenon of interest is called a theoretical probability distribution. The distributions of discrete and continuous random variables are accordingly called discrete or continuous probability distributions.

Discrete Probability Distribution: It can be defined as a probability distribution of discrete random variables. Such a distribution will represent data that has a f inite countable number of outcomes. If the random variable X is a discrete random variable, the probability function P(X) is called probability mass function and its distribution is called discrete probability distribution. There are two conditions that a discrete probability distribution must satisfy. These are given as follows:

Types of Discrete Probability Distributions

There are several important discrete probability distributions-

• Uniform distribution

• Binomial distribution

• Negative Binomial distribution

• Geometric distribution

• Poisson distribution

• Hyper-Geometric distribution

True/False

Q.1.    The process of knowing all the relevant information from the known sample to the unknown “Population parameter” is known as “Statistical inference.”
Q.2.    The method of estimating the unknown parameter of the population on the basis of known sample values is known “Estimation method.”
Q.3.    The “Point estimation and Interval estimation” are the two methods of estimating the unknown parameters of the population.

Time Series

A series of observations recorded over time is known as a time series. In other words, a time series is a set of observations taken at specified times, usually at equal intervals. For example: Annual retail sales, rainfall measurements, heartbeats per minute, etc. Such studies are to be based on the analysis of time series data collected over time. Thus, the analysis of time series plays an important role in an investigation of economic, social, commercial and even biological phenomenon.

Components of time series

In a long time series, generally, there are following four components:

• Secular trend or long term movements

• Seasonal variations

• Cyclic variations • Random or irregular movements

• Secular trend or long term movements: It is that characteristic of a time series which extends consistently throughout the entire period of time under consideration. It shows a long term tendency of an activity to grow or to decline. The term long period of time in a relative phenomenon and cannot be defined exactly. For some cases a period as small as a weak may be fairly long while in other cases, a period as long as two years may not be assumed long.

Computer Purchase

With so many factors to consider, deciding which omputer to buy can be a real challenge. From components to software to accessories, new PCs offer a bewildering array of choices. Sifting through the large number of options can be a daunting task. Almost any PC on the market today can more than adequately handle such standard office chores as word processing and spreadsheets, as well as basic Internet functions like e-mail and general browsing. If you want to edit digital video or manage a large database, however, you may need more than the basics.

The best way to pay only for what you need is to carefully consider what you want to do with your system now, and try to anticipate what might interest you next 2-3 years. Specific applications call for certain types of hardware, whether at home or in the office. When you’re ready to buy a computer, here are some recommendations for the average user’s basic requirements:

Traditional knowledge is a type of Intellectual property. It is also known as indigenous knowledge generated from the local communities and tradition of regional technology areas. This knowledge is orally passed over generation from person to person. According to world intellectual property organization, Traditional knowledge is an indigenous, cultural and intellectual property. The biodiversity of a country, the uses and applications of biological resources and prevalent practices are examples of traditional knowledge associated with life science. TK has the tremendous potential of being transformed into commercial opportunity by the development of products and processes. Hence, a share of benefits must accrue to creators and holders of Traditional Knowledge.

Introduction 
Good Laboratory Practices (GLP) serve as the foundation of any efficient and high-functioning laboratory, ensuring data reliability, patient safety and adherence to regulatory standards. In an environment where accuracy, consistency and data integrity are critical, comprehensive GLP training becomes the driving force behind operational excellence. A well-structured training program strengthens the capabilities of laboratory professionals, enabling them to navigate complex regulatory landscapes while upholding the highest standards of quality and safety. In today’s rapidly evolving scientific and industrial sectors, maintaining stringent laboratory standards is imperative rather than optional. GLP provides a structured approach that ensures every test, analysis and experimental procedure is carried out with precision, ethical rigor and strict adherence to safety measures. However, beyond simply following GLP principles, continuous assessment of laboratory personnel’s competency is essential to sustaining long-term proficiency and compliance. Competency assessment in GLP plays a crucial role in verifying whether laboratory staff possess the requisite expertise to perform tests accurately and generate reliable, scientifically valid results. As a framework designed to uphold the credibility of non-clinical laboratory studies, GLP is instrumental in reinforcing research integrity and ensuring compliance with regulatory authorities. Laboratories that rigorously follow GLP guidelines contribute to reproducible and verifiable scientific findings, which are vital for regulatory approvals and critical decision-making in pharmaceuticals, healthcare and research sectors. Competency assessments function as both a quality assurance mechanism and a professional development tool, guaranteeing that laboratory personnel not only comprehend standard protocols but can also execute them effectively in real-world scenarios. With the continuous evolution of laboratory sciences, training and assessment methodologies must also advance to meet new challenges. This chapter explores the transformation of GLP training and competency evaluation, emphasizing their significance, diverse methodologies and essential components. Additionally, it highlights best practices for implementation and introduces innovative strategies designed to complement established global standards, such as those outlined by the Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute (CLSI) and the Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR). By embracing these advancements, laboratories can not only achieve regulatory compliance but also cultivate a culture of excellence, ensuring that their workforce remains agile, skilled and prepared to meet the demands of modern scientific landscapes.

After preparing the desired DNA molecule using E.coli, the plasmid can be transferred into Agrobacterium by this method. Efficiency is low (~10³ transformants per mg of DNA) but the method is reliable and very rapid. This method also eliminates much of the plasmid rearrangement that occurs during triparental mating.

Procedure

Grow an Agribacterium strain containing an appropriate helper Ti plasmid in 5 ml of LB medium 16 hours at 28ºC.

Add 2 ml of the culture to 50 ml LB medium in a 250 ml flask and shake (~250 RPM) at 28ºC until an OD₆₀₀ of 0.5 to 1.0 is obtained.

Chill the culture on ice. Centrifuge the cell suspension at 1000 g for 30 minutes at 4ºC.

Discard the supernatant. Resuspend the cells in 1 ml of 20 mM CaCl₂ (ice cold). Dispense 100 mL aliquots into pre-chilled 1.5 ml tubes.

Add about 1 µg of the desired plasmid DNA (pure or crude) to the cells in each tube.

Transformation

The uptake of DNA by competent cells is called transformation. Transformation involves:

Mix a small volume of DNA (usually 1-3 µl) with 100 µl of competent cells.

The mixture is incubated on ice for 30 minutes to allow the cells to take up the DNA.

The cells are then heat-shocked at 37 to 42°C for 1 minute, and cold shocked on ice for 2 minutes.

The heat shock/cold shock reverses the effect of the competent cell process, by healing the damage inflicted by the competent cell solution.

Add 0.5 ml of LB culture mediumz

Incubate the cells for 10 - 30 minutes at 37°C to aid the healing process.

This cell/medium mixture is then spread onto bacterial culture plates containing agar, LB, and a selection mechanism.

10.1 Public Concerns About GMOs
10.1.1 Introduction
Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs), particularly transgenic crops, represent one of the most transformative breakthroughs in modern biotechnology. Despite their promise to address global challenges such as food insecurity, pest infestations, and climate resilience, GMOs have also triggered significant public concern. These concerns, though varying across regions and socio-political contexts, typically revolve around human health, environmental safety, ethical considerations, corporate control, and regulatory transparency. Understanding these public apprehensions is crucial for biosafety policymaking and responsible biotechnology governance.
10.1.2 Human Health-Related Concerns
A. Allergenicity and Toxicity
One of the most widely voiced apprehensions is that transgenic foods might introduce new allergens or toxic compounds into the food chain. The insertion of foreign genes, particularly from non-food species (e.g., bacteria, viruses), raises the possibility that novel proteins could elicit allergic responses or metabolic imbalances in humans.
Example: The case of a transgenic soybean incorporating a Brazil nut gene was withdrawn from commercialization after tests indicated it could cause allergic reactions in individuals sensitive to tree nuts.

The Genetic Basis for Protein Synthesis

Archibald Garrod proposed that some genes code for the production of a single enzyme

Beadle and Tatum’s experiments with Neurospora led them to propose the one gene-one enzyme hypothesis

During translation, the genetic code within mRNA is used to make a polypeptide with a specific amino acid sequence

Exceptions to the genetic code are known to occur, which include the incorporation of selenocysteine and pyrrolysine into polypeptides

Synthetic RNA helped to decipher the genetic code

The use of RNA copolymers and the triplet binding assay also helped to crack the genetic code

A polypeptide chain has directionality from its amino terminal to its carboxyl terminal end

The amino acid sequences of polypeptides determine the structure and function of proteins

Cellular proteins are primarily responsible for the characteristics of living cells and an organism’s traits

I. Definitions

Transpiration - evaporation of water from a plant surface

Evapotranspiration - evaporation of water from a plant surface and the soil (and abiotic surroundings.

Take-home-lesson: Plants loose a lot of water by transpiration. See text for some specific examples.

India’s livestock sector is one of the largest in the world and dairy farming is the single largest contributor to country’s GDP, apart from being the biggest source of employment. India has 56.7 per cent of world’s buffaloes. Buffalo genetic resource greatly helps the countries to assess their strengths and potential to harness the nature’s gift and India is fortunate in terms of having largest buffalo population, huge buffalo germplasm diversity (13 recognized plus 14 distinct population groups) and the world renowned buffalo breeds: Murrah, Banni, Jaffrabadi and Nili-Ravi.

The Hans Krebs cycle, known by different names like the citric acid or tricarboxylic acid cycle, was named after the scientist Hans Krebs. The citric acid cycle is named after the citrate product formed in the cycle. The name tricarboxylic acid is given as citrate itself, which is a tricarboxylic acid due to the presence of three carboxyl functional groups (-COOH).
The tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle occurs in aerobic conditions and within mitochondrial ETC, involving various sequential oxidoreductase reactions. The cycle requires Acetyl-CoA (C2 molecule) and oxaloacetate molecule (C4 molecule) to begin with the formation of a citrate molecule (C6 molecule). Acetyl-CoA is generated from the pyruvate (glycolysis), the fatty acids (lipolysis), or by oxidative deamination of specific amino acids. The complete oxidation of a glucose molecule results in the end products like energy (ATP), CO2 and H2O. A molecule of Acetyl-CoA has two carbons. It is formed from a three-carbon pyruvic acid molecule generated from the glycolysis of a sixcarbon glucose molecule. Acetyl-CoA is the substrate for this cycle and is an energy-rich molecule having a thioester bond between coenzyme A and acetic acid.
8.1 Formation of acetyl-CoA from Pyruvic Acid
Pyruvate is obtained by glycolysis or the oxidation of glucogenic amino acids. The pyruvic acid produced in the cytoplasm crosses the inner membrane of the mitochondrion to enter the mitochondrial matrix, where it undergoes oxidative decarboxylation, forming Acetyl-CoA. Acetyl-CoA carries (carrier molecule) the acetyl group to the citric acid cycle. It also links various metabolic products with the TCA cycle. Such products can be from the EMP cycle, beta-oxidation, and oxidative deamination of amino acids. Oxidative decarboxylation of pyruvic acid needs a complex enzyme system known as pyruvate dehydrogenase