eChapters

Abstract
This chapter describes how modern quantum mechanical methods can be applied in a systematic manner to understand pharmacophore and mechanistic aspects of drugs. This chapter also explains why accurate computation of drug-receptor interactions is important for in silico drug designing and testing.

WHY in silico DESIGNING?
Drug designing is the inventive art of finding a new lead compound based on knowledge of its biological target and then its slow conversion to a compound of therapeutic benefit to patient termed as “drug”. This whole process comprises of long sequels of synthesizing compounds followed by their testing and activity evaluation procedures; often a seemingly endless task until desired potency level is achieved.

Evolution is a self-occurring natural phenomenon by which new organisms develop gradually as a result of change in genetic pool of a population. It is a very widely and historically studied phenomenon which still surprises scientists due to its underlying complexity. The three processes which contribute most to evolution are genetic drift (also known as random drift or allelic drift), natural selection and mutations. Genetic drift and natural selection act at a population level, whereas mutations act at individual level. For evolution to occur, the changes these processes bring about must be heritable, which they are.
 
Genes are present on chromosomes inside nucleus of the cell and the collection of all the genes in a cell is known as the genome of that cell. Genome size and complexity varies from species to species. Simple organisms, such as bacteria and protozoans have a very simple genome, with very few genes, whereas complex higher organisms such as humans have a large genome, with thousands of genes. The position of a gene on a chromosome is known as a locus. Organisms may have more than one copy of a chromosome in the cell.

Q.1.    What is the most fundamental assumption to be followed by random variable for using the standard method of parametric statistics or parametric inference ?

    Answer
    
    The most fundamental assumption required to be followed by random varibale for using the parametric statistics to have statistical inference drawn from certain set of data is that the random variables have normal distribution.

6.1    Copyrights
    
6.2    Trademarks
    
6.3    Geographical Indications
    
6.4    Trade Secrets

Introduction
At the beginning of the 21^st century, with a population of 6.1 billion in 2000 and expected to be headed for 9.1 billion by 2050 (UN News Centre, 2005), the challenge of yet again increase food production by many folds only in 50 years has become a daunting task in itself. The situation is further worsen because now, we need to increase food production in sustainable way by 2050 on approximately the same area of arable land using less resources, particularly, fossil fuel, water and nitrogen, at a time when we must also mitigate some of the enormous challenges associated with climate change. Furthermore, there is the critical and urgent humanitarian need to alleviate poverty, hunger and malnutrition which is afflicting more than 1 billion people

4.1    Provisional and Complete Specifications
    
4.2    Publication
    
4.3    Request of Examination
    
4.4    PCT Application: Gateway to Foreign Patents

5.1    TRIPS
    
5.2    WTO
    
5.3    WIPO
    
5.4    Paris Convention
    
5.5    Berne Convention
    
5.6    Budapest Treaty
    
5.7    Madrid Agreement Marks (MAM)
    
5.8    The Patent Law Treaty (PLT)

2.1    Specification Drafting
    
2.2    Methods and Precautions in Drafting Patent Specification
    
2.3    Disclosure Requirements
    
2.4    Patent Claims
    
2.5    Filing of A Patent Application

Introduction

Microbes (bacteria, archea and eukarya) are single celled organisms that rule the planet. Microbes occupy every possible niche, from the high atmosphere to the deep ocean, from hot springs to artic ice, from hot deserts to deep forests including many regions that cannot yet be accessed for study. The biosphere contains between 1030 and 1031 microbial genomes, which is about 2-3 times more than the number of plant and animal cells combined (67). In fact, studies have shown that microbes associated with the human body are about ten times more than the number of human cells (5).  Microbes play a critical role in the life cycle of all living organism and environment in general.  Some microbes cause disease, but the most of them are either innocuous or play a role in physiology and cellular response including immune response, digestion and vitamin production of various organisms.

Abstract

DNA barcoding, an additional global standard taxonomic tool for identifying plant species helps the non-taxonomists also to identify the plant species in a more reliable way with the help of devices including nanotechnology. Researchers proposed various genes or gene portions as potential barcodes either singly or in combination, yet there is no standard/ universal barcode DNA region for plants. The more accurate plant DNA barcode region would have to be from highly variable markers in the nuclear genome preferably from multiple loci and in combination with variable DNA regions of chloroplast genome, to resolve the problems that arise due to hybridization, allopolyploidization and introgression. Nonetheless, the phylogenetically informative sites might not be the potential DNA barcode regions as the former requires synapomorphies unlike autapomorphies with high levels of informative characters in the latter DNA taxonomy, but could provide insights into genetic distances between species.

1.     Isolation of Plant DNA
    
2.     RAPD Analysis of Genomic DNA
    
3.    Agro Bacterium based Transformation in Plants
    
4.     Assay for Gus Operon
    
5.     Confirmation of Transformation using Polymerized Chain Reaction (PCR)
    
6.     Primer Designing
    
7.     Isolation, Purification and Identification of Plant Secondary Metabolites
    
8.     Evaluation of Antioxidant Activity of Plant Extract
    
9.     Estimation of Total Phenolic Content in A Plant Extract
    
10.     Estimation of Total Flavanoid Content

1.     Plant Tissue Culture Laboratory
    
2.     Cleaning and Sterilization of Glass Wares
    
3.     Media Sterilization
    
4.     Media Composition and Media Preparation
    
5.     Callus Culture in Carrot
    
6.     Culture of Shoot Tip (Vanilla)
    
7.     Anther Culture of Datura
    
8.     Subculture of Carrot Callus
    
9.     Hardening of Plantlets
    
10.     Isolation of Protoplast from Plant Leaves

Introduction

India is an agriculture based country with 60% of the manpower employed in agriculture (World Bank, 2010). Few of the main environmental issues are soil erosion, water pollution from raw sewage and runoff of agricultural pesticides. There is a need to maintain a sustainable environment and a sustainable agricultural system.  Sustainable Agricultural system is a self sustaining system, is dependent up the ability to bring together and manage simultaneously the soil, water, plant and animal resources with the limitation of climatic and environment in such a way that the agricultural production/profitability can be maintained in the future too. So initiatives need to be taken to achieve a sustainable agricultural system. Tools have been developed to aid agriculturist, extension personnel and policy makers. The World Wide Web has made the tools easy accessible.

Q.1.    What is an experiment ?

    Answer
    
    An experiment is a means of getting an answer to the question that an experimentor (researcher) has in mind. This may be to decide which of the several pain relieving drugs that are available in the market, is the most effective or whether they are equqlly effective.
    
    An experiment may be planned to compare the yield of different varieties of wheat. so that the varity giving the maximum yield may be recommended to the farmers to increase their production.

Checks and Balances in Biotechnology Applications
    
Biosafety Issues in Animal Biotechnology Application
    
World Organization for Animal Health (OIE)
    
Recombinant DNA Safety Guidelines (1990)
    
Foreign Trade (Development and Regulation) Act, 1992 (2006)(Draft Amendment)
    
Revised Guidelines for Research in Transgenic Plants and Guidelines for Toxicity and Allergenicity Evaluation of Transgenic Seeds, Plants and Plant Parts (1998)
    
Guidelines for Generating Preclinical and Clinical Data for rDNA Vaccines, Diagnostics and other Biologicals (1999)
    
The Food Safety and Standards Act (2006)
    
Transgenic Animals Bioreactors
    
First Patent in Biotechnology
    
Biotechnology - Ethical Concerns
    
Some Priority Areas in the Field of Biotechnology
    
Suggestions for Future Development of Biotechnology Activities in the Field of Animal Health and Production in India
    
Epilogue

1.     Centrifuge
    
2.     Spectrophotometer
    
3.     Microscope

Q.1.    What is progeny row trial ?

    Answer
    
    The replicated experiment designed to compare a number of parent plants with respect to any characteristic under study is known as progeny row trial.

11.1 Total DNA Extraction by cTAB Method
    
11.2 Extraction, Purification Estimation of DNA
    
11.3 Potassium Acetate Procedure
    
11.4 DNA  Estimation
    
11.5 Restriction Enzymes

1. Introduction
The era of genome sequencing was exploded by the upcoming of Human Genome Project (1989), coordinated by the U.S. Department of Energy and the National Institute of Health to identify all the approximately 20,000-25,000 genes, 3 billion chemical base pairs, store this information in databases, improve the tools for data analysis, transfer related technologies to the private sector, and address the ethical, legal, and social issues (ELSI) that may arise from the project. The dawn of genome sequencing began with Fredric Sanger’s sequencing almost twenty-five years ago. The time consuming and labor intensive gel preparation and their running, as well as the cost of such experiments replaced the conventional sequencing by “shotgun” sequencing.

Vaccines
    
Veterinary v/s Human Vaccines
    
Modern Veterinary Vaccines
    
rDNA Technology to Prepare Vaccines
    
Veterinary Viral Vaccines
    
Live Vaccines
    
Killed Vaccines
    
Genetically Engineered Viral Vaccines
    
Veterinary Bacterial Diseases Vaccines
    
Veterinary Parasitic Vaccines
    
Vaccines against cancer
    
Swine Flu
    
Foot and Mouth Disease
    
Adenovirus Vector Vaccine
    
Johne’s Disease
    
Diseases of Poultry
    
Newcastle Disease in Poultry
    
Avian Influenza (Bird Flu)
    
Rabies
    
Disease Diagnostics
    
The Nucleic Acid-hybridization Technique
    
Diagnostics Based on pcr
    
Diagnosis by Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphisms and Related DNA-based Approaches
    
Diagnosis by DNA Probes and DNA Microarray Technology
    
Antigen-Capture Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA) Proteomics
    
Disease Diagnosis Kits Developed
    
Brucelosis
    
Rabies
    
Canine Distemper and Canine Parvo Virus
    
Canine Hepatitis Virus
    
Foot and Mouth Disease
    
New Castle Disease
    
Egg Drop Syndrome Virus-76 (EDS-76)
    
Proteomics for Disease Diagnostics
    
Nanotechnologies in Diagnosis and Vaccine Development
    
Monoclonal Antibodies
    
Immunotherapy
    
Problems
    
Animal Genomics for Disease Resistance
    
Gene Knockout Technology
    
Gene Pharming
    
Gene Therapy
    
Types of Gene Therapy
    
Germ Line Gene Therapy
    
Somatic Gene Therapy