eChapters

INTRODUCTION

Bangladesh is a very small country of 1,47,570 square kilometer area having a population of 150 millions. The country has only 8.29 million hectare (Bangladesh Krishi Diary, 2003) cultivable land against the huge population. The land area is gradually decreasing because of population growth, industrialization and other infrastructure development. This results in a declining trend of per capita land availability from 0.13 hectare to 0.06 hectare during the last few decades (1960 to 2000) (Food and Agriculture Organisation, Bangladesh Country Profile).

In order to ensure food security of this vast population and with the emergence of “Green Revolution” in 1960s, priority was given to produce more food in terms of grain through intensification of land usage. New crop variety (HYV), chemical fertilizers, pesticides and irrigation were introduced. As a result, immediate objective of more grain (rice) production had increased and Bangladesh had temporarily achieved self sufficiency in food (rice). Bangladesh made steady progress in crop agriculture in the post-independent period. Cropping intensity increased from 148 to 179 per cent and food grain production almost doubled during the period from 1969/70 to 1992/93 (Hoque, 2007).

However, a lot of HYVs, hybrids, which were introduced, required increased amount of chemicals, and over time they took a toll on the fertility of soil, gradually decreasing acreage production despite usage of high doses of chemical fertilizer and pesticides. Moreover, the natural disasters such as floods, droughts, etc., continued to result in fluctuation in production. Wide fluctuations in production led to large instability in food grain prices having serious implications for household food security and the welfare of the people. The attainment of food security and rural economic development, therefore, could no longer rely on the production of rice alone.

Scheme

The needy livestock farmer visits the banks in the local area and enquire with the bank manager about the livestock projects and after having discussion with him, he visits the technical expert. A scheme can be prepared by a beneficiary after consulting local technical persons of State animal husbandry department, DRDA, SLPP, etc. livestock co-operative society/union/federation/commercial livestock farmers. If possible, the beneficiaries should also visit progressive livestock farmers and government/military/agricultural university livestock farm in the vicinity and discuss the profitability of livestock farming. A good practical training and experience in livestock farming will be highly desirable. The livestock co-operative societies established in the villages as a result of efforts by the Livestock Development Department of State Government and National Livestock Development Board would provide all supporting facilities particularly marketing of fluid milk. Nearness of livestock farm to such a society, veterinary aid centre, artificial insemination centre should be ensured. There is a good demand for milk, if the livestock farm is located near urban centre. The scheme should include information on land, livestock markets, availability of water, feeds, fodders, veterinary aid, breeding facilities, marketing aspects, training facilities, experience of the farmer and the type of assistance available from State Government, livestock society/union/federation.

Setting up livestock enterprise be it a small dairy unit, goat unit, milk and meat processing plant, selling parlor requires capital. Lack of access to credit to expand the herd is a critical problem for farmers. There is little access to formal credit through the cooperatives or banks. Informal credit is available from private traders and agents of private companies, but the interest rate is very high. Keeping this situation in mind and to provide financial support from banks few major dairy entrepreneurship schemes have been developed and implemented by banks with the support of state animal husbandry departments across different parts of the country. National Bank on Agriculture and Rural Development (NABARD) is the lead bank for financial support of such schemes.

An important disease in Turkey producing areas of the world. It is reported an opportunistic pathogen to human. Bactria grows in ciliated epithelium of vertebrates.

Etiology

Bordetella avium, a small Gram-negative bacillus, which is motile and aerobic. Differences in pathogenicity among strains exist.

Transmission

Recovered birds serve as carriers. Turkey coryza is highly contagious, and transmission occurs directly through close contact and contaminated feed and water.

Basal cell carcinoma is a locally malignant epithelial tumor of skin which is mainly composed of basal cells. This may occur due to mutation in the tumor suppressor gene p53 and chronic exposure to UV radiation.

Cytologically, neoplastic cylindrical columnar cells, are moderate to high in number. The neoplastic cells are small to medium sized with round to spherical nuclei with basophilic cytoplasm (Figure 42 & 43).

1. Individual or mass selection
The terms individual selection and mass selection are often used interchangeably, and they refer to selection solely based on the individual´s phenotype. This is a well-known and widely used method of selection in animal breeding. It can be used on characteristics that can be measured in the candidate animal itself, as weight gain is most efficient in characteristics of high heritability. Individual selection is usually the simplest method to operate and, in many circumstances, it yields the most rapid response. It does not require individual identification or the maintenance of pedigree records, hence, it may be considered the least costly method. In principle, it can produce rapid improvement if the heritability of the trait(s) under selection is high. It can be suitable for growth rate and morphological traits (easily assessed, expressed in both sexes). By contrast, individual selection is not suitable for situations in which the estimation of breeding values requires the slaughter of the animals (carcass and flesh quality traits). When applying individual selection, the evaluated animals must be under equal environmental conditions; therefore, the environmental conditions must be controlled. In this case, the influence of external conditions should be minimal and kept the same for all individuals to be compared at any life cycle stage. In this manner, the probability of correct ranking of the individuals based on thus genetic merit is maximized. Differences between individuals or groups of individuals for environmental factors may reduce the accuracy of the selection substantially, and in that way, can also reduce the possibility for genetic improvement. it is important to form contemporary groups and select within them. To obtain as equal environmental conditions as possible all individuals to be compared should be reared under identical environmental conditions. Therefore, it is important to form groups of animals with similar ages, grown in the same production systems, with similar control of environment, handling, and feeding. However, mass selection may be unsuitable if there is large uncontrolled systematic environmental variation (for example age differences). Additionally, there is no control of inbreeding with mass selection.

The formation of the mammalian body plan is regulated by highly conserved gene regulatory networks. During this developmental stage, the notochord and primitive node play critical roles in establishing the cranial-caudal axis and left-right asymmetry. Ectoderm, the outer germ layer, differentiates into neuroectoderm and surface ectoderm. Neuroectodermal cells move from the developing neural tube’s lateral edges to a dorsolateral position. These neuroectodermal cells are known as neural crest cells. The central nervous system originates from the neural tube, whereas the peripheral nervous system originates from both the neural tube and the neural crest. Mesoderm cells proliferate and develops into three separate components: the paraxial, intermediate, and lateral plate of mesoderm. The paraxial mesoderm cells form whorl-like aggregations known as somitomeres on both sides of the neural plate. Paraxial mesoderm organises into separate blocks known as somites caudal to the seventh somitomere. Somatic cells make up the vast majority of the axial skeleton, accompanying muscle, and covering dermis. The embryonic gut tube, developing respiratory system, and accompanying glands all develop from endoderm, the inner germ layer. Endoderm is also responsible for the epithelial linings of the urinary bladder, middle ear, and auditory tube. Endoderm also gives rise to the parenchymal cells of the thyroid, parathyroid glands, pancreas, and liver.

INTRODUCTION

Knowledge is a familiarity with someone or something, which can include facts, information, descriptions, or skills acquired through experience or education. It can refer to the theoretical or practical understanding of a subject. It can be implicit (as with practical skill or expertise) or explicit (as with the theoretical understanding of a subject); it can be more or less formal or systematic.While many would agree that one of the most universal and significant tools for the transfer of knowledge is writing (of many kinds), argument over the usefulness of the written word exists nonetheless, with some scholars skeptical of its impact on societies. People are often internalizing new information which they perceive to be knowledge but in reality fill their minds with false knowledge.

1.    Mass transfer co-efficient is expressed as

(a) m/s₂

(b) m/s

(c) kg/s

(d) kg/ms

2.    Heat is related to

(a) Flow rate

(b) Energy

(c) Temperature

(d) Momemtum

3.    The units of mass transfer coefficients are

(a) Moles transferred / (time x area x concentration)

(b) Moles transferred / (time x area x mole-fraction)

(c) Moles transferred / (time x area x pressure)

(d) All of the above

Things required for cell culture

1. Lab – having negative pressure (HEPA filter)

2. Safety cabinet (Hood/laminar flow)

a) Biosafety level 1 (BSL-1) – Basic level of protection. Agents handled under this cabinet are NOT infectious.

b) BSL-2 – Appropriate for moderate risk agents. Most of the non infectious cell cultures are done under this facility.

To understand how radiographs are produced by using X-rays, an understanding of how photons of diagnostic range can interact with matter is necessary in five possible mechanism of interaction:
    ·    Coherent scattering.
    ·    Photoelectric absorption.
    ·    Compton scattering.
    ·    Pair production.
    ·    Photodisintegration.

Abstract

The Basic Local Alignment Search Tool, or BLAST, is an online tool provided by the National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI) that allows users to search for matches between their query sequences and the sequences stored in NCBI databases. BLAST can be used to search for nucleotide sequences against nucleotide sequences, protein sequences against protein sequences, and protein sequences against translated nucleotide sequences in the databases. BLAST is widely used to study sequence similarity, identify target sequences, analyze the functional aspects of molecular sequences, and investigate evolutionary relationships. This chapter details on the BLAST and its applications.

Molecular biology involves the study of DNA, RNA and proteins in cells. It emphasizes the biomolecules that carry out biological processes. One should understand the biomolecules participating in the process to understand the cellular function. In diagnostic microbiology, biomolecules are the analytes for testing and characterization. The analytes for molecular testing are the genomes (DNA), transcriptomes (RNA) and proteomes (Proteins) of the microorganism. Traditional methods of microorganism characterization depend on the culturing of the organisms, which is time-consuming and sometimes challenging to perform. Molecular techniques involve the characterization of DNA, RNA and protein to identify microorganisms. Nucleic acid sequence details are used to classify bacterial species, and mass spectrometry is used to identify microorganisms based on peptide profiles.

DNA (Deoxy ribonucleic acid)
DNA contains the genetic information required for the development and functioning of the living organism. It is the central informational molecule comprising a sequence of A, T, G and C nucelotides linked together by a phosphodiester bond. DNA is double helical in structure, composed of two complementary strands of nucleotides held together by hydrogen bonds between nitrogenous bases.

    1.    Absorbance (A) - Defined as –log (1-a) = log (1/t), where ‘a’ is the absorbance and‘t’ the transmittance of a medium through which a light beam passes.

    2.    Absorption coefficient (a) - The relative decrease in the intensity of a collimated beam of electromagnetic radiation, as a result of absorption by a medium, during traversal of an infinitesimal layer of the medium, divided by the length traversed.

    3.    Acceleration due to gravity (g) - The standard value (9.80665 m/s2) of the acceleration experienced by a body in the earth’s gravitational field.

    4.    Acid - Historically, a substance that yields an H+ ion when it dissociates in solution, resulting in a pH< 7. In the Brönsted definition, an acid is a substance that donates a proton in any type of reaction. The most general definition, due to G.N. Lewis, classifies any chemical species capable of accepting an electron pair as an acid.

    5.    Acid dissociation constant (Ka) - The equilibrium constant for the dissociation of an acid HA through the reaction HA + H2O1 A- + H3O+. The quantity pKa = -log Ka is often used to express the acid dissociation constant

    6.    Acyl groups - Groups formed by removing the hydroxy groups from oxoacids that have the general structure RC (=O) (OH) and replacement analogues of such acyl groups.

    7.    Adiabatic process - A thermodynamic process in which no heat enters or leaves the system.

1.1. IMPORTANCE OF FOOD MICROBIOLOGY

Food may be defined as substances that provide nutrients, which when eaten and absorbed by the body, maintain life and growth. Food is basically energy stored in plant and animal foods in chemical form. On consumption, the stored form gets converted to physiological energy. Food is the prime necessity of life. Man has exhibited much thought and foresight in cultivating a variety of grains, fruits, vegetables, nuts and oilseeds and in rearing birds and animals for use as food.

Of the three primary needs of an individual, food, clothing and shelter, ‘food’ occupies the most important place. The biodiversity of foods- cereals, millets, pulses, oilseeds, spices, fruits and vegetables is varied and high in India, where we have varied agro-climatic regions from Kashmir to Kanyakumari. All the fifteen major climates in the world exist in India. India is the second largest producer of food in the world. The impact of green revolution is remarkable in India with many fold increased food production in the last five decades. The full potential of Indian agriculture can not be realized unless India emerges as a major player in the World agriculture.

World population is set to go beyond nine billion by 2050 and demand for food is likely to increase further because of growing affluence and globalization. Food security is achieved when all people have physical and economic access to sufficient, safe and nutritious value added food. India is emerging as a food power in the international trade of foods. The food processing industry in India has been identified as one of thrust areas for the development of the country. It has emerged as a highly perspective sector with immense potential in food processing. The future of Indian food processing industries is bright, provided it improves its quality of products as per international standards.The quality of food processing refers to the adherence of physical, chemical, biological, nutritional and sensory parameters required to achieve the wholesomeness of a food product. Quality control has become an important aspect for food processing industry for both domestic and export markets.

Introduction

The process of setting up a business is preceded by the decision to choose entrepreneurship as a career and identification of promising business ideas upon a careful examination of the entrepreneurial opportunities. Generation of ideas is not enough; the business ideas must stand the scrutiny from techno economic, financial and legal perspectives. That is, after the initial screening of the ideas that do not seem promising prima facie, you should conduct an in-depth examination of the chosen three-four before settling for the one where you would like to exert your time, money and energies. You should prepare a business plan that will serve as the road map for effective venturing, whether you may require institutional funding (in which case it is necessary to do so) or not. Setting up of new business enterprises is a very challenging task; you are likely to encounter many problems en route. It’s advisable to be aware of these problems.

Molecular diagnostic laboratory set-up has basic requirements of space, laboratory benches and equipments. In terms of laboratory space, minimum four chambers, one each for sample preparation and nucleic acid extraction, PCR reaction mixture preparation, thermal cycling and gel analysis are required. In addition there should be sufficient space for storage of consumables and laboratory wares. In addition, there are some laboratory equipments which are needed in a molecular diagnostic laboratory. In the following section the equipments of a molecular diagnostic laboratory are discussed. The pictures are taken from the instruments present in the laboratory of the author. The purpose of this chapter is to introduce the reader to a molecular diagnostic laboratory. None of the pictures below are meant for promotion of any particular brand or manufacturer.

3.1 UV-VIS spectrophotometer

A spectrophotometer is required for determining the quality and quantity of nucleic acids extracted from a sample. Photometric research applications such as DNA, RNA and protein analysis can be carried out in a UV-Vis Spectrophotometer. There are various units that feature a broad wavelength range (including UV area), path length correction and a fast reading speed. Various instruments also provide an interface that allows quick measurements directly from the instrument or comprehensive easy-to use software for demanding assays.

Statistics is defined as a discipline that includes procedures and techniques used to collect, process, and analyze numerical data to make inferences about the data. The word statistic is used as a singular, denoting the numerical data. Statistics are the numerical quantities calculated from sample observations. Here, the word statistics hence is plural. Basically, statistics is defined as the statistical data (in the plural sense) and also as statistical methods (in the singular sense). A clearer and more precise definition is that ‘statistics is the study of methods and procedures for collecting, classifying, presenting, analyzing, and interpreting data to make scientific inferences from it’. Bio statistics is the science dealing with the application of statistical methods to the problems of biological sciences.

2.1 FUNCTIONS OF STATISTICS

a) To present the facts in a definite form: If the data or results are given in numbers, rather than in qualitative statements, they will be more useful. The statements like ‘there is a considerable amount of unemployment in a country or the human population in a state is increasing at a faster rate’ are not in definite forms. The statements should be in definite form like there is a 15 percent unemployment in 2023 or the population is increasing by 5 percent every decade.

Introduction
Statistics is a field of mathematics that pertains to data analysis. Statistical methods and equations can be applied to a data set in order to analyze and interpret results, explain variations in the data, or predict future data. A few examples of statistical information we can calculate are:
Average value (mean)

Wool serves as a dense, wavy, and fibrous protective layer for sheep, primarily made up of the insoluble protein keratin. The wool fiber develops from follicles located in the dermis, which is the skin’s middle layer. Each wool fiber comprises two distinct layers:
1. Outer layer: This layer consists of flat, irregularly shaped scales that overlap, resembling fish scales. These scales are less tightly bound than those found in hair and are essential to the wool’s characteristics, such as its capacity to shrink, strengthen, and felt. The outer layer also affects the overall quality of the wool. While the sheep is alive, the outer scales are coated with wool sweat or grease (termed suint), secreted by specialized glands to preserve the fiber’s condition. This grease can be partially removed during washing, and its presence influences the wool’s condition, which pertains to the quantity of grease or oil present in the wool.
2. Inner layer: Known as the cortex, this layer is composed of long fibrils that are bonded together. In contrast to hair, which contains an air-filled medulla in its inner layer, wool does not possess this feature, contributing to its superior strength compared to hair.
Morphological Structure of Wool: Technically, wool comprises three layers: cuticle or epidermis, cortex and medulla.
1. Cuticle: The outermost layer of the wool fiber, referred to as the cuticle, is made up of flat, irregularly shaped scales that overlap with their edges directed toward the fiber tip. This overlapping configuration, akin to roof tiles, produces a rough texture that increases friction and aids in felting. When disturbed, these scales interlock, leading to the entanglement of fibers and the formation of a matted fabric, which is beneficial for felted textiles. Additionally, the cuticle possesses a waxy coating that offers a water-repellent barrier, preventing water penetration while permitting moisture vapor absorption, thereby enhancing wool’s resistance to water-based stains and improving comfort by wicking moisture away.