eChapters

1. Carbohydrates are primarily composed of the elements
   1. Carbon, hydrogen and oxygen
   2. Hydrogen, oxygen and carbon
   3. Oxygen, carbon and hydrogen
   4. None of these
2. Carbohydrates have an empirical formula
   1. (CH₂O)_n
   2. (CH₂O)_n+₁
   3. (CH₂O)_n-₁
   4. (CH₂O)_n/₂

Carbohydrates are the macronutrients consisting of carbon (C), hydrogen (H), and oxygen (O) atoms. In simpler terms, carbohydrates can be defined as polyhydroxy aldehydes or ketones or substances, which yield them on hydrolysis. The general formula of carbohydrates is Cn (H2 O)n , where n is the number of carbon atoms. In nature, carbohydrates are the most abundant biological molecules. In the human diet, carbohydrates are one of the main nutrients that provide energy to the body. The green plants, through the process of photosynthesis, synthesize the carbohydrates.

Classification of carbohydrates

Carbohydrates are also known as saccharides, originating from the Greek word sakcharon, which means sugar. However, not all saccharides have a sweet taste. Carbohydrates can be classified into three distinct groups: monosaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides. The number of sugar units determines this classification.

Monosaccharides

Monosaccharides, or simple sugars, are the most basic carbohydrates. They are the monomers that serve as the building blocks for forming polymers or complex carbohydrates. Monosaccharides are the most simple carbohydrates possessing carbonyl groups, i.e., aldehyde (CHO) and ketone (C=O) groups with two or more hydroxyl (OH) groups. Monosaccharide has the generic formula Cn (H2 O)n, where n is the number of carbon atoms. Monosaccharides are sugars that cannot be hydrolyzed further to form simple carbohydrates. These crystalline solids without color dissolve in water but remain insoluble in non-polar solvents.

Carbohydrates are synthesized from CO₂ and H₂O in chlorophyll containing plants during photosynthesis. The term carbohydrate was originally coined for this class of compounds as most of them were hydrates of carbon or could be represented by the general formula C_n(H₂O)n. Not all the carbohydrates however, have this empirical formula, for example deoxyribose (C₅H₁₀O₄) and glucosamine (C₆H₁₃O₅N). Further lactic acid (C₃H₆O₃) formaldehyde (HCHO or CH₂O) and acetic acid (CH₃­.COOH or C₂H₄O₂) with this general formula is not a carbohydrate. Carbohydrates are defined as the compounds having either an aldehyde or a ketone group or a modified aldehyde or ketone group and other carbon atoms with alcoholic (-OH) group. Hence the continued usage of the term carbohydrate is for convenience rather than exactness.

1.    Carbohydrates can be represented by

(a) Fischer projection formula

(b) Haworth cyclic structure

(c) Both (a) and (b)

(d) None of these

2.    If a compound has got four chiral centers then it will have isomeric structures.

(a) 4

(b) 8

(c) 16

(d) 64

3.    The sugar, which does not possess chiral center is

(a) Glucose

(b) Fructose

(c) Glyceraldehyde

(d) Dihydroxyacetone

The cradle-to-grave dairy supply chain includes a number of operations that result in greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions related to milk production. These activities broadly include the use of agricultural inputs like fertilizers, fossil fuel for the production of animal feed and fodder, processing concentrates in cattle feed plants, enteric fermentation, manure management, and post farm gate activities like processing milk at dairy cooperative societies, milk unions, its conversion into different milk products, and their distribution through retail supply chains.

Introduction Nanoscience is a competitive and trending concept in present scientific community, especially in agricultural and allied sciences. The usage of nano-sized materials in food processing sector spreading slowly. With the passage of time and innovation continuation in nanotechnology creating interest to develop miniaturized sensors. Miniaturized sensors have lots of benefits like reducing bulkiness with low power consumption and this eventually reduces the cost. Generally inorganic semiconductors are widely used to develop nano sensors. Generally, sensors are composed of two basic unit which are an identification element and a signal transducer element. Due to its simple structure, high portability and low price, can benefitted against disadvantages of existing system, which are costlier and much more popular. High portability, ease of placement and use make it suitable for onsite use with real-time monitoring. Also, helps in qualitative and quantitative analysis of such substances during analysis of foods which may cause danger and thus inhabit a wider research and development space. For the detection of different unwanted materials or compositions in food, various chemical or biological sensing devices based on different working principles have been developed. The carbon-based nano material can be categories as Ordered Mesoporous Carbon, Carbon Nanotubes, Graphene and Its derivatives, and Carbon Dots.

Cardamom thrips: Sciothrips cardamomi: Thripidae

Thysanoptera

This thrips attacks other crops like amomum,  tea, colocasia, grapevine, castor, cotton, ginger and turmeric also. The thrips are minute greyish brown insects with fringed wings. They breed on unopened leaves, spindles, leaf sheath, flower bracts and floral tubes .

The word cardiac arrest (CA) or heart attack is frightening. In animals heart attack does not occur in the manner as it occurs in humans. In humans the main cause of cardiac arrest or heart attack is coronary infarct. The prevalence of cardiac arrest or cardiopulmonary arrest (CPA) or heart attack in animals is relatively very low as coronary infarct is not a common disease in animals.

Key Points

• Cardiac crises can result in deadly outcomes. Prompt and precise diagnosis leads to early symptom alleviation and increased survival.

• Many illnesses qualify as cardiac crises, including thromboembolic disease, cardiac tamponade, arrhythmogenic disease, and congestive heart failure.

Introduction

A cardiovascular emergency is defined as any condition affecting the heart or vasculature that prevents appropriate blood flow, tissue perfusion, or oxygenation. Cardiac emergencies include a wide range of disorders such as arrhythmias, cardiac tamponade/pericardial effusions, and congestive heart failure (CHF).

Cardiac ultrasound is also known as echocardiography and it has a very important place in the diagnosis of cardiac diseases of the humans as well as animals. Echocardiography is an imaging of the heart using ultrasound. The diagnosis of congenital heart diseases, shunts, complex malformations, valvular heart diseases, different cardiomyopathies, endocarditis, pericardial effusion, cor pulmonale and cardiac tumours has been possible by cardiac ultra ultrasound that was otherwise difficult.

Cardiovascular system consists of heart and blood vessels which include both arteries and veins. Blood vessels formation occurs in two stages i.e vasculogenesis and angiogenesis. Splanchnic mesodermal cells lining the yolk sac form clusters, referred to as blood islands. Vasculogenesis, the formation of blood vessels from blood islands of of Pander, commences during the third week of gestation in domestic animals first in yolk sac and later in the allantois.Development of blood vessels involves a complex series of events during which endothelial cells differentiate, proliferate, migrate and become organized into vascular network. Angiogenesis describes budding and sprouting of new vessels from existing vessels. This process a fundamental requirement for embryological development, continues postnatally.

The primary function of cardiovascular system is to maintain blood circulation so that normal exchange of fluid, electrolyte, oxygen, carbon dioxide, nutrient
and excretory and secretory end products can take place between tissue and blood. Failure of circulation to any degree interferes with the transport and
exchange mechanism.

Care and Management of Meat-Type Chickens (Broilers)

Broiler Overview

• Broilers are unisex young chickens raised specifically for meat production. They are typically grown to reach a body weight of 2.0 to 2.5 kg within 5 to 6 weeks, consuming 3.0 to 3.5 kg of feed, resulting in a feed conversion ratio of 1.50 to 1.75.

• Broiler meat is flvored for its tenderness, high-quality protein content, low fat and cholesterol levels, superior flavor, and juiciness.

• The broiler production cycle is divided into three phases based on the birds’ physiological and production needs: broiler starter (0-10 days), broiler grower (11-21 days), and broiler finisher (22 days to marketing).

3.1. Introduction 

Calves are the future replacement stock of dairy farm. The raising of calves, an important operation of the dairy farm requires a great deal of managemental skill, application and constant attention. Any negligency results in increased calf mortality, poor growth and development of the calves. So, care of the calves is important for success of the dairy farm.

Care and Management of Commercial Growers (09-20 weeks) Under Deep Litter System

Grower management essentially remains the same as that of chick management (brooding management) except for the additional space required for floor, feeders and waterers to keep with the size of birds. The growers may be reared in separate grower-houses or continued to be reared in brooder-cum-grower houses.

Floor space: 1260 cm² (1.4 ft²) per bird.

Feeder space: 6-8 cm per bird. One linear feeder of 120 cm length and 8 cm depth for 40 growers.

Waterer space: 2 cm per bird; a circular waterer of 36 cm and 8 cm depth of 6 lit. capacity for 50 growers. Growers are to be provided with fresh, cool and potable drinking water at least twice a day. Water requirement is increased during hot days. Care must be made not to spill water on litter.

Lighting management: No artificial lighting is given other than natural day light since they require only 9 hours of light per day.

Livestock sector has emerged as one of the key components of agricultural growth in developing countries in last few decades. This sector plays a significant role in the economic progress of India as it contributes 26% to the agricultural GDP and provides employment to around 18 million people. Over 70% of the rural households in India depends on livestock farming for supplementary income and is considered as an important instrument in poverty alleviation. It provides the major extra contribution to agriculture through manure, fuel fertilizer, apart from meat and milk that grant a regular supplementary income and employment not only to producers but also to huge size of the population engaged in secondary and tertiary business related to livestock. The economy of Jammu and Kashmir is also agriculture dependent and is the main occupation of majority of the rural people who earn their livelihood from it. Census figures 2011 signify that about 73% of the population of J&K lives in rural areas and are associated with agriculture and allied sectors including livestock rearing as main occupation.

Traveling with your dog can be a delightful experience, whether you're embarking on a road trip, flying to a distant destination, or simply visiting friends and family. However, it requires careful planning and preparation to ensure your dog's safety, comfort, and well-being. This guide covers the essential aspects of traveling with your dog, providing tips and best practices for a smooth journey.

Preparing for the Journey

Health Check and Documentation

1. Veterinary Check-up: Before any trip, schedule a visit to the vet to ensure your dog is healthy and up-to-date on vaccinations. Discuss any travel-specific health concerns with your vet.

2. Documentation: Carry a copy of your dog’s medical records, including vaccination certificates, in case they are needed during your trip. Some destinations require proof of rabies vaccination and other health certifications.

5.1. Introduction

A dry cow is a cow that is not producing milk. Usually cow remains in-milk for about 305 days (average lactation length), after that it remains for a period of about 60 days in dry condition (not giving milk) called dry period. Dry period is critical for a cow for regeneration of her udder and reserve nutrients for the next lactation, otherwise, milk production will not be upto the mark and the cow may suffer from several metabolic diseases after parturition. A dry cow is just as valuable as a lactating cow, therefore should be not neglected. A dry cow management programme includes nutrition, general management and health control programme.

4.1. Introduction

Heifers are young female cattle from 12 months of age to first calving. Heifer management is important as they are future cow of the herd. Proper growth and body condition of the heifers are associated with their early sexual maturity and age at first breeding, and their later productive and reproductive performances, when they become cow. Thus, proper care and management of the heifers is necessary to establish a good dairy herd.