eChapters

The Structure of Proteins

Proteins are composed of building blocks called amino acids. A string of amino acids is called a polypeptide chain. Once such a chain has folded into its working three-dimensional shape, it is a protein. Though there are tens of thousands of different proteins, all of them are put together from a starting set of 20 amino acids. It is the order in which the amino acids are linked in a polypeptide chain that determines which protein will be produced.

One of the most consumed and well- known milk products in the Indian subcontinent is ghee. It is a by- product of tradition, prepared both at organized dairy plants and the household level for a well- established market. Ghee is traditionally made from the milk of cows or buffalo. The tetrapyrrole pigments biliverdin and bilirubin are responsible for the distinctive color of buffalo ghee. On the other hand, ghee is golden yellow due to the presence of carotenoids in cow’s milk. Ghee’s composition changes according to the kind and feeding habits of the animal and can differ from place to place and season to season.

In addition to, being a substantial source of fat- soluble vitamins, essential fatty acids, and other growth- promoting components, ghee is a rich source of energy. Its value as food for humans is enormous. Additional attributes related to medicine are present in ghee. Ghee can improve one’s physical and mental attributes and treat eye conditions like ulcers. Ghee is used in religious and ceremonial rites in addition to being consumed.

Composition

Ghee is a complex lipid composed of mixed glyceride which makes up 99–99.5% of its total content. In addition, it has trace amounts of calcium, magnesium, phosphorus, iron, copper, and fat- soluble vitamins, tocopherols, carbonyls, hydrocarbons, carotenoids, free fatty acids, phospholipid, sterols, and sterol esters

4.1 Introduction
Human milk widely acknowledged as the optimal source of nutrition for infants, providing a rich array of components crucial for their growth, repair and development. However, the composition of human milk can vary
significantly within and between feeds, throughout the day, over the course of lactation, and among different mothers and also populations. While this variability is beneficial for infant health and survival, it presents challenges for the management of nutrition of high-risk infants who require precise oversight. The composition of human milk can be altered by factors such as the handling of expressed milk, including how it is stored and pasteurized. Thus, proper management of expressed milk is essential. The recommended practice for infant nutrition is exclusive breastfeeding for the first six months, followed by continued breastfeeding for at least one to two years. Human milk is naturally suited to meet the nutritional needs of infants, providing both nourishment and bioactive compounds that support healthy growth and immunity.
Human milk contains a variety of bioactive components, such as immune cells, anti-infective and anti-inflammatory agents, growth factors, and prebiotics. In contrast to infant formula, which has a fixed nutritional profile, human milk is dynamic and can vary between and within feedings, influenced by maternal factors, environmental conditions, and the methods used for expressing and managing milk.
A thorough understanding of human milk’s composition is vital for effective infant feeding, especially for at-risk infants. It also allows for the assessment of how milk storage and pasteurization may impact its beneficial components. Additionally, some of the bioactive elements in human milk are being studied for their potential use in medical treatments, either as preventive or therapeutic agents.

Commercially, one of the most significant milk products is ice cream. It is a frozen product which is usually made from milk or cream that has been f lavored with fruits like peaches or strawberries, and spices like vanilla or cocoa, or with sugar or a substitute. Stabilizers are sometimes combined with food coloring. Ice cream mix typically contains 10.0% milk fat, 11.0% solids not-fat, 14.0% added sugar, and 0.3% additives like an emulsifier, stabilizer, f lavor, and color substances.

Standard of Ice Cream

According to FSSA (2006), ice cream, kulfi, chocolate ice cream or softy ice cream means the product obtained by freezing pasteurized milk prepared from milk and/or other products derived from milk with the addition of sweetening agents and fruit products, egg products, coffee, cocoa, ginger, and nuts. It may also contain chocolate, and bakery products such as cake or cookies as a separate layer and/or coating. It may be frozen hard or frozen to a soft consistency. It shall be free from artificial sweeteners. It shall have a pleasant taste and smell free from flavor and rancidity. It may contain food additives. It shall conform to the microbiological requirements as given in FSSA (2006).

3.1 Malted Milk
Malted milk, originating from the ideas of British pharmacist James Horlick in the 19th century, was initially marketed under the name “Diastoid” before being trademarked as “malted milk” in 1887. Although initially targeted
for infants and invalids, its appeal expanded due to its nutritional value, convenience, digestibility, and palatability. Recognized globally for its lightweight, non-perishable nature, and high-calorie content, malted milk is
created by evaporating a mixture of malted barley, wheat flour, and whole milk until it forms a powder.
There aremainly two types of malt powder: diastatic and non-diastatic. Diastatic malt containing enzymes breaking down starch into sugar, aiding in dough rise and crust formation, particularly in bread making. Non-diastatic
malt lacks active enzymes and is primarily utilized for flavor enhancement, commonly in beverages. It may also include sugar, coloring agents, and other additives to improve taste and appearance.
3.2 Malting
Malting is a crucial process employed in treating cereal grains, such as barley, by inducing germination through soaking in water followed by halting the process through drying or heating with hot air. This technique encompasses two main stages: sprouting and kiln-drying. The term “malt” encompasses several products of this process:
1. Malted grains: These are grains, like barley, that have undergone the malting process.
2. Malt sugars: These are sugars, predominantly maltose-rich, derived from malted grains, often utilized in baking, such as baker’s malt.
3. Malted milk products: These include beverages like malted milkshakes, made using malted milk.

Silage fermentation is a complex process involving biochemical changes by microbial populations and the ensiling environment. The chemistry and microbiology of silage fermentation are linked, but the microorganisms are the dominant factor in the fermentation process, and they have the main influence on the quality of the end product. Many species of microorganisms are involved in the fermentation process, and their relative importance varies according to the prevailing conditions. As these conditions change during the fermentation process, the microorganism population changes accordingly. Lactic acid bacteria and clostridia are two main categories of microbes responsible for biochemical changes in silage.

Being an essential component of the rich Indian past, traditional dairy products and a sophisticated classification of confections have played a significant role in the Indian economy. Depending on how it is processed, it has significant social, cultural, and economic significance. These products have been developed over a long period using a combination of experience, traditional wisdom, and culinary skills. India is emerging as the highest milk- producing country in the world with an annual production of 221.1 million tons in the year 2021–22 (Source: Basic Animal Husbandry Statistics, MoFAHD, DAHD, GoI). An estimated 50% of the milk produced in India is used to make a range of traditional dairy products, including paneer, dahi, ghee, khoa, and shrikhand. The product is not only well- established in the Indian market, but it also has significant export potential due to the large Indian diaspora living all over the world.

All native milk products that have developed over time using locally accessible technologies are referred to as traditional Indian dairy products or Indian indigenous milk products. The Indian masses’ economic, social, religious, and nutritional well- being are greatly influenced by traditional dairy products.

Classification of Traditional Indian Dairy Products

Traditional dairy products in India are typically made, packaged, and/or sold using time- honored methods without the use of machinery or meticulous documentation of the procedure. These products do, however, have several technological advantages, including their widespread appeal, reduced cost of production, straightforward manufacturing process, adoption at the rural level or collection center, large profit margin, and abundance of employment opportunities. These products are categorized according to the manufacturing principle.

Milk is the secretion of the mammary glands of animals. For human consumption, milk is that liquid obtained from the cow or the buffalo during the period following at least 72 hours after calving or until the milk is colostrums-free. It is a complex biological fluid consisting of seven main components: water, fat, protein, sugar (lactose), minerals, vitamins and enzymes. Milk is a white opaque fluid in which fat is present as an emulsion, protein and some mineral matters in colloidal suspension and lactose together with some minerals and soluble proteins in true solution. The opacity of milk is due to its content of suspended particles of fat, proteins and certain minerals. The colour varies from white to yellow depending on the carotene content of the fat. Skimmed milk is more transparent with a slightly bluish tinge. Milk of a good flavour has a pleasant, slightly sweet taste, and no odour. It is an excellent source of calcium, phosphorous and riboflavin. Vitamin A and D are currently added to whole milk, partly skimmed and skimmed milk.

Chemotherapy in Parasitology deals with the treatment of disease caused by different parasites by specific drugs; meanwhile particular drug has got the particular action against the particular parasite. Recently chemotherapy is a extensively used and emerging branch for the control of different stages of parasites that is normally not killed by the conventional methods of treatment. Thus, chemotherapy plays an important role in the treatment and control of parasitic infections by avoiding the outcome of the danger of the disease by treatment of the affected animals. They should have the maximum parasitotrophic action and minimum organotrophic action. It is mainly divided into two types: 1) Rational therapy: It is a mode of treatment based on the pharmacological actions of drugs with relation to disease. 2) Supportive therapy: It is a method of treatment other than drugs, e.g. giving high protein diet in the oedematous condition such as bottle jaw in fascioliosis and amphistomiosis. The drugs used for the killing or complete removal of the parasites from the body of the host called antiparasitic drugs.

Q1. The nitrogen atom of amino group in basic structure of sulfonamide is designated as

1. N1
2. N2
3. N3
4. N4

Q2. Trimethoprim produces synergistic action by interfering the synthesis of

1. Dihydrofolic acid from tetrahydrofolic acid
2. Tetrahydrofolic acid from dihydrofolic acid
3. mRNA from DNA
4. tRNA from DNA

Q3. An ophthalmic sulfonamide is

1. Sulfaguinidine
2. Sulfadimidine
3. Sulfadimethoxine
4. Sodium sulfacetamide

Etiology

It is a pruritic transmissible dermatological condition caused by Cheyletiella yasguri, one of the surface living mite.

Etiology

It is a pruritic transmissible dermatological condition caused by Cheyletiella yasguri, one of the surface living mite.

11.1 Introduction

Chi-square test is a non-parametric test. Such non-parametric tests have assumed great importance in statistical analysis and statistical inference because they are easy to compute and can be used without making assumptions about parameters as they are distribution-free tests.

Artificial insemination (AI) technology is one of the important managemental tools for the successful poultry industry. It has several uses and a few limitations also. This technique is performed to avoid the spread of venereal diseases by natural mating and to increase the dissemination of genetic material to a large number of birds. This technique include: semen collection, semen evaluation (physical and biochemical characteristics), semen dilution and preservation and deposition of semen in the female genitalia. Semen dilution is one of the most critical components of AI technology. Several suitable semen dilutors are reviewed for low temperature storage up to around 48 hours.

Chikungunya has been emerged as an important public health problem in the Indian Ocean Islands and India recently. Epidemiological, geographical and demographic data suggested that 1.38 million people were affected by the disease in India in 2006. The actual incidence of the disease may have been higher but underreporting did not reveal the actual picture. A large proportion of those who became ill consulted private health care professional or sought alternative medical care such as Ayurveda or homeopathy not included in the data collected by Govt. officials.

During the epidemic, rural hospitals, private and public clinics flooded with victims of Chikungunya. The virus did not kill its victims but inflicted considerable pain and misery besides local, regional and national financial burden towards health care. Only National Institute of Virology (NIV) and National Institute of Communicable Disease (NICD) provided accurate diagnosis of the disease. The Chikungunya assumed epidemic proportions because viral agent mutated, the vectors discovered the new ways to spread and the host lacked immunity to fight the disease. Modern transport systems - cars, buses, trains and aircraft particularly the movement of humans played a key role in spreading the disease that helped to maintain man-mosquito man cycle.

Etiology: First isolated in Tanzania in 1953, Chikungunya is under genus Alphavirus and family Togaviridae. It contains a single stranded positive sense RNA with a length of 12 Kb coding 4 non-structural (nspl - nsp 4) and 3 structural proteins (E1-E3). Among the structural protein, El protein correlates with serological response in human hosts and also modulates penetration of the virus in the mosquito species. Genetic analyses and historical accounts suggest that the Chikungunya virus originated in tropical Africa and subsequently evolved into 3 distinct genotypes - the East African, the West African and the Asian genotypes. The Asian genotypes have a high degree of nucleic acid sequence homology among themselves but the African strains exhibit wider sequence diversity and have been shown to undergo genetic micro-evolutions even during the course of an epidemic. Prior to the 2006 epidemic in India, the 3 genotypes were restricted to the geographical areas only. Previous outbreaks in India (1963 and 1973) were caused by the Asian genotypes, but the 2005 epidemic in the Indian Ocean Islands and the 2006 epidemic in India have been attributed to the East African genotype which arrived in India 5 years ago.

Chilli thrips: Scirtothrips dorsalis, Thrips palmi: Thripidae

The adults of this insect are small brownish black with fringed wings. The nymphs are slender and yellowish straw coloured, later acquiring more brownish hue. They lacerate the tissues and feed on the exuding sap. Leaves become crinkled, curled upward and shed. The attack can be confused with chilli mosaic symptom.  In capsicum and chilli, they also feed beneath calyx of flowers and fruits causing flower/fruit drop and reduction in yield and market value of capsicum. Buds become brittle and drop down. Plants get stunted and bronzed. The fruits if at all formed are crinkled and small.

Chrysomelid beetle : Aulacophora foveicollis : Chrysomelidae

Adults cut tender shoots and feed on leaves resulting in holes and loss of leaf. Grubs feed on roots and underground stems leading to yellowing,wilting and drying of attacked plants.

Leaf-and shoot folders: Hymenia recurvalis : Pyraustidae

Pycnarmon cribrata;Phostria piasusalis

Abstract

Chitin has been ranked at second position after cellulose as the most abundant natural biopolymer. Chitin has similar chemical structure to that of cellulose with 2-acetamido-2-deoxy-b-d-glucose (NAG) monomers attached via ß (1–>4) linkages. Chitosan is the deacetylated (to varying degrees) form of chitin, which, unlike chitin, is soluble in acidic solutions. Therefore, Chitosan, a copolymer of glucosamine and N-acetyl glucosamine, is amongst the most copious biopolymers on earth and finds wide range of biomedical and industrial applications. It has been approved in 1983 by USDA as a feed additive. Chitin basically is obtained from prawn/crab shells and chemical treatment of chitin produces chitosan. Since supplies of seafood waste are seasonable and variable, so fungi can be used as alternative source for chitosan. The unique physicochemical properties of chitosan provide great potential of its utilization in food industry especially dairy industry such as production of dairy products, dairy waste water treatment, extension of shelf life of dairy products etc. In recent years, exotic synthetic compounds are losing their appeal, thus application of chitinous products in dairy as well as processing aids has received considerable attention. The modified chitosan with greater functional properties has increased application in different dairy foods. This chapter focuses on the fundamental uses of chitosan and their derivatives in a variety of dairy industry applications.