eChapters

Definition of Breed

A breed is a group of animal’s related similar characters like general appearance, size, features and configuration etc. A group of individual which have certain common characteristicsthat distinguish them from other groups of individuals is known as Species.

Classification of market

There are several bases on which markets are classified.

a. On the basis of location

On the basis of the place of location or operation, markets are of the following types:

Village market

A market which is located in a small village, where major transactions take place among the buyers and sellers of a village, is called a village market.

Primary markets

• These markets are located in big towns near the centres of production of commodities. In these markets, a major part of the produce is brought for sale by the producer-farmers themselves. Transactions in these markets usually take place between the producers/farmers and traders.

Under the selected breeding system selected males and females are mated. The breeding system can be classified into five different ways depending on their phenotypic and genotypic relations.
The five Breeding Systems are
(1) Random mating,
(2) Phenotypic assortive mating,
(3) Phenotypic disassortive mating,
(4) Genetic assortive mating and
(5) Genetic disassortive mating.
1. Random mating or Panmixia: It is a system of mating in which each male individual has an equal opportunity to mate with the female individual and vice versa. This mating system generally takes place in nature where the number of males and females are assumed to be equal.
2. Phenotypic assortive mating: In this type of mating animals which are phenotypically alike are allowed to mate among themselves. This is also called “like to like” mating.
3. Phenotypic disassortive mating: Here individuals which are phenotypically unlike are allowed to mate. It is also called “unlike to unlike” mating. For example, mating of tall with short individuals.
4. Genetic assortive mating: In this system individuals, which are closely related genetically are allowed to mate. This is also known as inbreeding.
5. Genetic disassortive mating: This system is just opposite to the previous system where mating takes place between less closely related individuals. This is also called as out breeding.

Improvements in microscopes enabled scientists to study the ‘invisible’ organisms – that is, those too small to be seen with the naked eye. They were able to show that certain of these microscopic creatures are responsible for the infectious diseases of higher organisms. Most of them are harmless, some are essential for life and some are used in the manufacture of products that are of benefit to humans.

LAB constitutes a group of gram positive bacteria. They are nonsporulating, nonrespiring but aerotolerant cocci or rods, which produce lactic acid as one of the main fermentation products of carbohydrates, they do not have cytochromes. They belong to the phylum Firmicuttes, class Bacilli and order Lactobacillaceae. The group includes several genera such as Lactobacillus, Lactococcus, Bifidobacterium, Pediococcus, Enterobacter, Corynebacterium, Streptococcus, Leuconostoc etc.

Classifying wool is crucial in the textile sector for upholding quality standards, enhancing processing techniques, and ensuring that wool satisfies particular market demands. Precise classification aids in choosing the appropriate wool type for a variety of products, ranging from apparel to carpets, and guarantees uniformity and performance across diverse applications.
Classification of Wool: Wool is categorized in a manner akin to hides and skins, based on its intended application. It is divided into three primary types according to fibre length: combing wool, clothing wool, and carpet wool. Long fibres are combed and twisted to produce worsted yarn, whereas shorter fibres are carded and blended in various directions to create woollens. Carpet wool is characterized by an average fineness of 30 to 50 μm and a medullation percentage between 15% and 68%. The quality of wool is influenced by factors such as breeding conditions, climatic conditions, diet, and overall care. For example, excessive moisture can strip natural grease, while colder climates lead to tougher, heavier fibres. Consequently, wool can be classified in two distinct manners:
A. By the sheep from which it is sourced, and
B. By fleece

Wool is a fibre basically composed of amino acids and have excellent absorbency, moisture regain capacity, tend to warm the human body if used in form of cloths and others, good in elasticity and resiliency but poor in resistance to alkali but acid tolerance is good. To get better utilization of wool, they may be classified into various categories based on their origin, fleece quality, fineness of wool fibres etc.

There is no single factor as important in the production of fine quality dairy products as absolute and complete cleanliness.

R.B. Barrett

It is not enough to provide milk for man, it must be high quality milk. It would be impossible to provide man with milk and milk products of superior quality if we were unable to remove milk soil and to kill residual microorganisms. Respectively, these are the processes of cleaning and sanitizing.

To successfully provide the atmosphere for proper food safety, the basics must be thoroughly understood. The basics of food safety begin with good understanding of sanitation processes, food-handling procedures that protect from, or eliminate cross contamination problems and specific attention to inspection of and follow up for all processes. Food safety activities need to be programmed into available time of day scheduling just as production requirements do. Whether special personnel or separate shifts handle cleaning responsibilities or you clean as you go on the production line, time must be made available. Safe products leaving the facility must be the watch word of all employees involved with the process.

In order to ensure safe food supply a high level of sanitation should be maintained throughout the food production chain. The word ‘sanitation’ is derived from the Latin word “sanitas” which means “health”. To further apply this word to the food industry, sanitation is the creation and maintenance of hygienic and healthful conditions when processing, preparing and handling food. Sanitation is the application of science to provide wholesome food handled in a hygienic environment by healthy food handlers to prevent contamination by food spoilage microorganisms. Effective sanitation refers to the mechanisms, which accomplish these goals.

Cleaning and sanitisation are the two processes employed in dairy industry to ensure hygiene and product safety. The safety of milk and milk products is a very important aspect and every attempt should be made, during processing, to minimize contamination through handling and processing equipments. The accumulated dried milk solids (milk stones) consist largely of calcium phosphate, milk proteins (precipitated, coagulated and baked on by heat) and insoluble calcium salts from water and washing detergents. The surface can also contain biofilms, which are formed by the incorporation of bacteria into the accumulated inorganic and organic materials that attach to most surfaces. With time and in the presence of nutrients, a biofilm and the bacteria within the biofilm will grow and become strongly attached to the surface. The removal of dairy soil, milk stones as well biofilms is the prime objective of the cleaning process. International Dairy Federation (IDF) defines a clean surface as one which is free from residual film or soil that will not contaminate the food products coming in contact with it.

While cleaning refers to the removal of soil from the surface of the equipment, sanitisation implies destruction of all pathogenic and almost all non-pathogenic organisms. Cleaning and sanitisation are complimentary processes. Either of the processes alone will not achieve the desired result, which is to leave the surface as free as possible from soil and viable organisms. In actual practice cleaning and sanitisation overlap to some extent, as during cleaning a high proportion of bacteria are destroyed and others get removed in the detergent solution. Inadequate or faulty cleaning and sanitisation can have serious consequences, as milk is a prefect nutrient in which bacteria can multiply. A thorough understanding of the cleaning methods is, therefore, necessary for economic production of high quality food products.

Cleaning and sanitizing of dairy plants is essential for providing safe milk products to the consumers as well as for ensuring the good shelf life of these products. It ensures cleanliness, hygiene of the equipments and surroundings and also ensures that the products meet the safety standards. Cleaning of dairy plant consists of broadly of removing the soil from the surface of the equipment by dissolving or suspending the soil in a warm solution of suitable cleaning agents. In the dairy industry, the soil is primarily milk and milk product residues which may be more or less modified by processing treatment. 
Milk and milk product residues are complex mixtures of milk sugar, fat, proteins and mineral salts. Some of these solids are present in emulsion, some are in a colloidal state, and others are in true solution. When milk products are heated in vats or pumped through sanitary pipe lines or over coolers, the metal or glass surfaces become coated with milk remains, which, if allowed to dry, may be difficult to remove.

Cleaning and sanitation are essential for maintaining microbiological safety in ice cream manufacturing, particularly because contamination can occur after pasteurization and freezing does not eliminate all microorganisms. This chapter explains contamination routes, hygienic zoning, cleaning systems, sanitization practices, HACCP principles, and microbiological expectations within an ice cream plant. It examines CIP and COP systems, detergent components, cleaning factors, high-risk equipment and surfaces, and post-pasteurization contamination control. Particular emphasis is placed on preventing biofilms and controlling contamination at filling equipment, tanks, pipelines, feeders, drains, packaging areas, and personnel interfaces. The chapter provides practical sanitation guidance to support food safety, product stability, regulatory compliance, and consumer protection

Immediately after use, all sorts of items are thoroughly washed with water and the rubber catheters are washed with the force of tap water to remove the residual diluted semen. The glass wares are kept in 1% chromic acid solution for overnight to remove cloudiness of glass surface. Then the articles are washed with lukewarm laboratory grade detergent (ex. Labolene®) with a brush to make the articles grease free. All the items are thoroughly washed several times under distilled water and kept inverted position in a clean trough then the openings of glassware wrapped with aluminum foil / paper.

The equipments used in artificial insemination should be clean and sterilized. The use of unsterilized equipments in AI causes the spread of infection in the herd and infertility. Rinse the equipments with tap water immediately after use and then lukewarm detergent solution. The detergent used for washing the AI equipments should be non corrosive. Use of corrosive detergents will reduce half-life of the plastic and rubber wares. Wash thoroughly with tap water till the equipments become grease free and perfectly clean. Then rinse in distilled water at least thrice. Use of distilled water does not leave any salt residues on articles after drying.

Introduction
• The source of contamination of meat plant is largely from the animals entering in the plant
• Severely contaminated hide/skin are the major source of abattoir contamination
• If proper hygiene of employees, equipments and clothing is not followed, then even after skinning 10,000 to 100,000 bacteria/ in2 can be detected
• Blades of knives can carry 80,000 to 40 millions bacterial per blade & hands of meat operative can have 3x109 bacteria/g of scrapings
• The chance of contamination of carcase is greater at the point of incision and minimum at the farthest point from the incision place
‘Scotoma effect’ or ‘factory-blindness’
• Persons working in any factory or abattoir on routine basis slowly and slowly becomes unaware (mentally ‘blind’) about any sub-standard hygiene or cleanliness problem existing in the surrounding
• This effect is known as ‘scotoma’ or ‘factory-blindness’
• Effect can be powerful and the any visitors to that factory or abattoir will instantly notice that sub-standard hygiene or cleanliness problem neglected by the persons working there

Introduction
Cleavage is the process of cellular division without growth. It is also called segmentation division and it follows immediately after fertilization. By the end of this process, single cell zygote is transformed into multi-cellular stage called blastula. Daughter cells are called blastomeres. All divisions are mitotic and occur consequently. Ratio of nucleus to cytoplasm is very low at beginning but later they resemble somatic cell. Cleavage division always start at animal pole. Cleavage can be classified as:
1. Holoblastic/Total cleavage: Whole fertilized ovum is involved in production of blastomere. It is also called complete cleavage.
a) Equal: All blastomeres are of equal size. E.g. mammals
b) Unequal: Some blastomeres at vegetal pole are larger. E.g. amphibians
2. Meroblastic/Partial cleavage: When deutoplasm is abundant and only a part of fertilized ovum is involved in cleavage, it is called meroblastic cleavage.
a) Discoidal: Cleavage is confined to the germinal disc i.e. at animal pole. E.g. birds and reptiles.
b) Superficial: Cleavage is confined to the peripheral margin of cytoplasm. E.g. arthropods.
Dividing continuously, embryo attains a stage of 16-32 cells. 16-celled stage is called early/uncompact morula and 32-celled stage is called compact morula. This stage is called morula due to its close resemblance to mulberry fruit. Structure is surrounded by zona pellucida.
After morula stage, fluid accumulation begins and blastomeres are gradually pushed to the periphery. As fluid accumulation progresses further, it leads to formation of large cavity in central part of embryo known as blastocoels and morula stage is now transformed into blastula/blastocyst stage. Blastomeres now arrange themselves as single celled outer layer called trophoblast and small group of cells at animal pole called inner cell mass (ICM). Trophoblasts give rise to fetal membranes and will help embryo in its attachment to uterine wall (implantation). ICM gives rise to all organs of body. Development of blastula is called blastulation.

Client communication is the key to success in practice as it is an important skill to narrow down the gap between owner of the animal and the veterinarian. In other words, it is a meaningful exchange of information between attending veterinarian and the owner of the ailing animal for improving health care outcome. In client centered world (where client satisfaction is in the core of practice), communication with client  has assumed greater significance whether it is related to educating him about preventive health care; explaining about disease diagnosis, prognosis and treatment options; or explaining about chronic disease condition and its outcome. Communication also influences the wellbeing of the patient. Therefore, development of trust in client-veterinarian relationship is crucial as it not only enhances the quality of history taking but also help in better clinical diagnosis and subsequent clinical care. Importance of Communication •     Client experience and feedback is important for providing good clinical

Abstract

Climate change is a matter of great concern considering aquatic resources and the productivity. The likely impact of Climate Change is noted in the domain both in marine as well as estuarine capture fisheries, fresh water capture fisheries and freshwater aquaculture. Climate change is having a linkage with spread of fish diseases as increasing water temperature will shift the balance in favor of either the host or pathogen changing the frequency and distribution of diseases. There are a no of adaptation and mitigation measures in aquaculture in order to increase the productivity and properly maintain the survivability of many aquaculture species.

Abstract

Tripura is expected to be highly prone to the consequences to climate change because of its geo-ecological fragility, strategic location, its trans-boundary river basins and its inherent socio-economic instabilities.  Environmental security and sustainability of the state is and will be greatly challenged by the impacts of climate change in coming years.
Climate and weather can substantially influence the development and distribution of insects.

Introduction

The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) assessment reports (IPCC, 2007) suggests that consequently occurring climate extremes are likely to increase the frequency and intensity in the future. In the Indian context, events such as landfall of rare of rarest most intense pre-monsoon Tropical cyclone Fani (2019), back to back landfall of very intense tropical cyclones such as Phalini (2013) and Hudbud (2014), Cyclone Komen (2015), Extreme rainfall events of Kerala (2018 and 2019), Heavy rainfall events of over Northeastern states of India (2019), Cloud burst events of Uttarakhand (2013), Rainfall over Himachal Pradesh (2019), Mumbai Rain fall (2015) and extreme heat wave conditions of 1998, 2015 and many similar type of extreme events are not usual. However, at present there is no unanimity among scientists to exclusively and directly link such extreme weather events to climate change, however based on number of studies and observation data sets it is agreed that the impact of climate change is evident (beyond the natural variability) in many part of the globe including India. In 2019 monsoon season at least 1351 deaths happened to ?oods, heavy rainfall and landslides compared to 1550 for year 2018. In this manuscript, recent research findings related to extreme weather events in the context India are discussed in the following section-2, need for high resolution and long term data sets are emphasized in section-3, followed by recommendations as part of future preparedness, that will not only enable us to address these issues in a robust scientific manner but also provide us strong resilient society to face these extreme weather events in an optimized and effective manner to minimize the loss of lives, properties and socio-economic conditions of citizens.