eChapters

Horse

The skull of horse is also pyramidal in shape like that of ox but the base of the pyramid is less wide than that of the ox. It is shorter in length and narrower in width than that of the ox. The cranium is smaller externally, however, the cavity of cranium is larger than that of the ox. The nasal cavity is divided into two chambers by nasal septum. The floor of the nasal cavity is shorter and less concave than that of the ox. The left and the right nasal chambers are completely separated and do not communicate with each other. The horn core is absent.

The occipital bone is placed at the extreme caudal part of the skull, caudal condyloid foramen is absent, the basi occipital is longer and prismatic and the squamous occipital is crossed by a nuchal crest. The sphenoid bone has two parts, the pre and post sphenoid, as that in case of ox. The wing of the post sphenoid presents three notches, carotid, oval and spinosal for internal carotid artery, ventral maxillary nerve and spheno-spinous artery respectively. The foramen orbitale and the foramen rotundum are not united. There are no major differences in the ethmoid bone of ox and horse. The frontal bones are less expansive than those of ox. These are situated between parietals caudally and nasals rostrally. The supraorbital foramen perforates the root of the supra orbital process that joins the zygomatic process of the squamous temporal. The horn core is absent. The ventral borders of the frontal bones of the opposite sides form a projection which fits into the notch formed by the two nasal bones. The temporal bone in horse has three parts, the squamous, petrous and tympanic as against two parts, the squamous and petrous of the ox. The squamous part is much more developed than that of ox. It has three parts, the body, zygomatic process and the occipital (pyramidal) process. The later one arises from the caudal part of the squamous. The stylomastoid foramen is between the hyoid and the mastoid processes and the auditory bulla is smaller. The interparietal is a single bone as that of ox.

Horse

The femur of horse is more massive than that in ox. The proximal third of the caudal surface of shaft of femur presents a rough eminence for attachment of biceps femoris muscle. The trochanter minor is a rough ridge like structure. The proximal third of the lateral border of shaft presents trochanter tertius for attachment of superficial gluteus muscle. The trochanter major is comprised of a convexity, a summit and a crest. The trochanteric ridge is vertical and it connects the trochanter major with the third trochanter. The lateral supracondyloid crest and the supracondyloid fossa are better developed in horse than that in ox. The patella of horse is wider and longer than that of ox.

The tibia in horse is relatively longer than that in ox. The popliteal line is prominent. It extends from the proximal third of the medial border, obliquely crosses the caudal surface and ends at the middle of the lateral border of the shaft of tibia. The medial border in its proximal third bears a small popliteal tubercle for attachment of popliteus muscle. The lateral border is attached to the shaft of the fibula and encloses an interosseous tibiofibular arch with the fibula. At the proximal extremity, the cranial tuberosity is vertically grooved. The lateral condyle on its lateral side presents facet for articulation with the proximal extremity of fibula. At the distal extremity, the grooves are oblique. The lateral malleolus is fused with the distal extremity of tibia, The medial malleolus is more prominent than the lateral one.

Horse

The first cervical vertebra (atlas) of horse is more or less similar to that of ox with a few variations as below

The wings of atlas are curved ventrad and laterad. These are thinner than in ox but their borders are thick.

The wings present an additional foramen, the transverse foramen in the caudal part.

A faint groove on the ventral surface of the wing connects the transverse foramen to the intervertebral foramen.

Horse

The bony cage of thorax is longer but narrower in horse than that in ox. It is compressed laterally

The thoracic vertebrae are eighteen in number. Their bodies are shorter. The spinous process of the first one is shorter and it is curved backward. The height of the spinous process increases up to third and fourth and there after it diminishes gradually up to fifteenth beyond which it is almost same. The backward inclination of the spinous process is most pronounced in the second. The spine of the sixth vertebra is straightly vertical and that of the last two vertebrae is directed slightly forward.

The ribs are in eighteen pairs. First eight pairs are sternal and the remaining ten pairs are asternal. These are shorter, narrower and more curved. The length of the ribs increases up to sixth and then it diminishes. The cranial borders of the ribs from second to sixth are sharp and from ninth to eighteenth they are rounded and thick. The lower edges of the ribs are excavated for receiving the costal cartilages. The first rib inclines little forwards, the second rib is vertical and the rests slope backwards.

The first pair of costal cartilages articulates at their distal ends with each other and with the sternum. The upper ends of the cartilages form synarthroidial joints with the ribs.

The sternum of horse is composed of seven sternebrae. It is canoe or boat shaped and presents three faces, three borders and two extremities. It is compressed laterally in front and dorsoventrally behind. The dorsal surface is narrow and triangular. It is concave craniocaudally. The lateral surfaces are convex above and slightly concave below. The lateral borders separate the dorsal surface from the lateral surfaces and they give attachment to two lateral sternal ligaments. The ventral border is the direct continuation of the cariniform cartilage of the cranial extremity of the sternum. It is thin, sharp and convex from before backwards. It is very prominent and can be felt by palpation in live animal. It is also called as sternal crest or keel. The cranial extremity presents a laterally compressed cariniform cartilage which presents a deep notch dorsally for articulation with the first pair of costal cartilages. The first sternebra is fused with second and the manubrium is made up of cariniform cartilage and the first sternebra.

Mouth

Horse

The mouth cavity (cavum oris) of horse is longer and narrower. The vestibule of the mouth cavity is less capacious than that of ox.

Dog

The form and size of the mouth cavity vary greatly in different breeds of dog. In some breeds the mouth is long and narrow while in others it is short and wide. Rima oris in general in all types of dogs is extensive.

Sheep and Goat

The mouth cavity is elongated and narrow. The rima oris is short. The buccal vestibule is capacious but the labial vestibule is small.

The thoracic spinal nerves of the horse, dog, sheep and goat, pig and fowl almost resemble to those of ox in origin, disposition and distribution. The number of pairs of thoracic spinal nerves, however, vary and it corresponds to the number of thoracic vertebrae present in those particular species of animal.

Horse

The kidneys of horse slightly differ in form and size than those of ox. The outer surfaces of kidneys of horse are smooth and plane as against lobulated kidneys of ox. The right kidney is like the heart of the plying cards while left kidney is bean shaped. The right kidney is placed under the vertebral ends of the last two ribs and first lumbar transverse process. The left kidney is situated under the last rib and the first two or three lumbar transverse processes. The hilus of both the kidneys is at about the middle of the medial border of the respective kidneys. The cranial extremity of the right kidney is thicker while the caudal extremity of the left kidney is wider and thicker. The hilus of the kidneys lead into the renal sinus in the interior for the lodgment of the renal pelvis which is the dilated origin of the ureter. The inner central part of the medulla forms a concave ridge called the renal crest. It presents numerous openings through which the large ducts open into the renal pelvis. This part is called the area cribrosa.

The ureter of the horse kidney begins at the renal pelvis and is about 70 cm in length and 6 to 8 mm in diameter.

The urinary bladder of horse is shorter but wider than that of the ox. Its capacity is about 2.8 to 3.8 liters. The rest of the features are same as those of ox.

Horse

The caudal vena cava in horse is largely embedded in the substance of the liver on its diaphragmatic surface. Here its free surface is covered only by the peritoneum. After crossing the liver, the caudal vena cava continues caudally along the right side of the abdominal aorta. During its course it gives off several branches from the dorsal and lateral surface.

The lumbar veins (parietal) are five or six pairs in number. The last one or two of these often join the internal iliac veins.

The renal veins are thin walled. The right renal vein is shorter than the left one.

The phrenic veins are two or three in number. The circumflex iliac veins join either the caudal vena cava or the internal iliac vein.

The portal vein is formed by the union of cranial and caudal mesenteric and the splenic veins in the cranial part of the sublumbar region at about the level of second lumbar vertebra. It passes cranially and to the right of the median plane continues through the portal ring of the pancreas and reaches to the portal fissure of the liver. Before entering the portal ring of the pancreas, the portal vein receives right gastroepiploic vein, right gastric vein and cranial pancreaticoduodenal vein. The cranial mesenteric, caudal mesenteric and the splenic veins are formed by the tributaries from the veins which are satellites of the branches of the respective arteries. After its entry into the hepatic portal, the portal vein divides into three principal branches. These include the right branch for right lobe, the middle branch also for the right lobe and the left branch for the left and the quadrate lobe.

Lungs and pleura

Horse

The lungs of horse are comparatively larger and longer than those of ox. These are not divided into lobes by deep fissures. The surface markings of lobules of lungs are indistinct due to reduced amount of interlobular connective tissue. The upper part of the medial surface of left lung has two grooves which are the markings of the aorta and oesophagus. These markings are comparatively faint and less marked. The ventral border of both lungs presents cardiac notch. The left cardiac notch is quadrilateral and more extensive than the right one. It extends from third to sixth ribs. The right cardiac notch is smaller and triangular. It extends from third to fifth ribs.

Dog

The lungs of dog are short and wide in order to be accommodated in the correspondingly similar shape and size of the thoracic cavity of dog. The fissures in the ventral border of the lungs are deeper and extend up to the hilus of the lung giving it an appearance of independent lobes. The right lung has four lobes and the left lung has two lobes. The intermediate (accessory) lobe of the right lung presents on its lateral surface a groove for caudal vena cava and right phrenic nerve. The cardiac impression on the mediastinal surface of the cardiac lobe is deeper in the right lung than that in the left lung. The right cardiac notch is triangular and it lies at the level of fourth and fifth interchondral spaces. The left cardiac notch is more ventral in position at the level of fifth and sixth interchondral space. The lobules are small and the surface lobulation is not distinct because of less amount of interlobular connective tissue.

A. Answer the following question?

1.    Mention the factors which affect the chemical composition of green forage?

Ans: Soilcompositionandhealth,applicationofmanureandfertilizer, frequency of irrigation, stage of growth, frequency of cutting and variety of strain.

2.    How does the age of plant affect the chemical composition of forage?

Ans: As the plants advance in age, dry matter, crude fibre and ash increase whereas the crude protein and ether extract decreases.

3.    What is food?

Ans: This is the combination of materials that provides nutrients

4. What is feed?

Ans: It refers to the food but most commonly used to animal food.

5. What is diet?

Ans: It is defined as the mixture of feedstuffs used to supply nutrientsto anyindividual.

6.    Whether mineral content of feeds remain fixed?

Abstract

Performance records of 1085 crossbred cattle daughters of 57 sires maintained during 1974-2004 at Instructional Dairy Farm of G. B. Pant University of Agriculture & Technology, Pantnagar were used to evaluate sires for first lactation and life time performance traits. First lactation traits included were age at first calving (AFC), first lactation period (FLP),first dry period (FDP) and first calving interval (FCI) and life time traits were herd life (HL), total lactation length and life time milk yield. The data were analyzed to estimate the breeding values of sires using least squares methods (LSM), best linear unbiased prediction (BLUP) and derivative free restricted maximum likelihood (DFREML) method. The average breeding values of sires estimated by all three methods were similar and estimated for AFC, FLP, FDP and FCI as 1359.95 days, 356.56 days, 177.58 days and 534.15 days respectively and for HL, TLL and LTMY as 1641.30 days, 1320.20 days and 9110.30 kg respectively. The estimated breeding values (EBV’S) showed large genetic variation between sires for both first lactation and life time traits. The estimated breeding values (EBV’S) of sires had very high and significant product moment correlations and rank correlations among all first lactation and lifetime traits estimated by all three methods.

Abstract

Rice blast disease (Pyricularia grisea cavara) which is very much weather sensitive, continues to be an enigmatic problem of West Siang District of Arunachal Pradesh, owing to its geographical location and climate. There is an urgent need of a forewarning system which can provide advance information for outbreak of the diseases attack so that protection measures can be implemented before the actual economic damage of the crop occurs. Two most important statistical techniques for disease forecasting viz. regression analysis and artificial neural network were chosen and forecasting models has been developed for the area and analyzed with local weather data to find best fit for the area and also compared with the Support Vector Machine (SVM) based model RB-Pred developed by Institute of Microbial Technology, Chandigarh. The model based on artificial neural network was found to be best with accuracy of 75-80%, with the present data and algorithm. The accuracy can be improved with long archive records and proper implementation and algorithm selection of the hidden layer, of both ANN and SVM based (being special case of ANN) models, for site-specific forecasting.

Among the epiphyseal and metaphyseal fractures of the different long bones, fractures of the proximal tibia are quite commonly reported and require special attention due to their proximity to the compound stifle joint. Hence, a standard fixation technique is needed to treat such fractures, which also permit early ambulation and preserve range of joint motion in addition to providing rigid fracture fixation. Different treatment modalities have been tried for fixation of metaphyseal fractures with variable results. No single method is appropriate in all circumstances and treatment indication often overlaps. Therefore, in this present chapter, an attempt has been made to evolve a standard technique for the management of such fractures.

Ten clinically healthy mongrel dogs are maintained under uniform housing, feeding and management conditions, acclimatized, immunized against rabies, dewormed and randomly divided into two groups (A and B) of five animals each. In all the animals unilateral metaphyseal fracture is created in the proximal tibia under general anaesthesia with intravenous thiopental sodium (5%). In the animals of group A, the fracture is immobilized with cross intramedullary Steinmann pinning with interfragmentary wiring, whereas, single intramedullary pinning along with interfragmentary wiring is performed in the animals of group B. Antiseptic dressing of the wounds is done daily for 1 week with povidone-iodine. All the animals are administered Enrofloxacin at the dose rate of 5 mg/ kg b.wt intramuscularly daily for 5 days posoperatively. Skin sutures are removed on day 10 post-operation

Bone section method

Advantage

Recommended for artificial limb fitting.

Non-weight bearing of stump is marked. Fig- 2a.

The affections of abdominal cavity incidence wise are on the top followed by thoracic cavity. Both these affections lead to high morbidity and heavy mortality losses. Most thoracic affections produce almost similar clinical signs but abdominal affections can show different clinical signs. Radiography and ultrasonography play an important role in differentiation and confirmation of various affections.

Radiography is an important diagnostic tool for both thoracic and abdominal diseases in small animals but for large animals it is more useful for thoracic affections as compared to abdominal affections. In large animals, the use of radiography is limited up to the ventral aspect of the abdomen only i.e. for diagnosis of diseases of reticulum, diaphragm and sternebrae. In thoracic cavity, there are numerous diseases that need to be differentiated. Pneumonia, lung cyst, lung abscesses, pleuritis and pleural effusions are some important diseases apart from presence of foreign bodies. In such a situation, radiography can play an important role as an aid in the diagnosis of various affections.

Similarly ultrasonography has also played a major role in the diagnosis of abdominal diseases in small animals such as dogs and newborn calves especially in the field of G I tract and urinary system. The ultrasonography is advantageous over radiography in the sense that internal anatomy of the soft organs can be better known and studied by ultrasonography as compared to radiography. It is also considered to be extremely safe for both the patient and the operator.

• General considerations

 • Purpose and goals of laboratory

 • Standards, guides and references

 • Accreditation for competence

 • Identification of scope

 • Test methods

 • Benefits of ISO17025 accreditation

 • Processing of application

Principle

Plasmids requires hosts to replicate, hence it has to be inserted into bacteria. But efficiency of uptake of plasmid DNA by bacteria is low and will not do so without getting degraded. Therefore, to enhance the probability of uptake of the plasmid DNA by bacteria it is necessary to make the bacterial cells “competent” to absorb the plasmid DNA. One of the methods to increase efficiency of cell competence is given below. It should be noted that competent cells are more fragile than normal bacteria. Vortexing the cells, heating the cells above 42ºC or to 42°C for prolonged periods, or exposure of the cells to abusive treatments may kill them

A. Answer the following.

Q.1.     Why the serum is inactivated at 56º C for 30 min before using it in CFT and VNT ?
Ans.     The complement and non-specific virus inhibitors are inactivated in this process.

Q.2.     What are the different enzyme and complement factors are secreted continuously by macrophages ?
Ans.     Lysozyme and Complement 2, 3, 4 and 5.

B. Write true or false about the followings.

Q.1.     The classical complement activation pathway is dependent on antigen-antibody complex.
Ans.    True.

The complement system is a group of about 30 heat labile plasma proteins which constitute nearly 15% of total serum proteins. It is a system of plasma and membrane-associated serum proteins which can elicit a highly efficient and regulated inflammatory and cytolytic immune responses to different types of infectious organisms.

The complement system is a group of about 20 heat labile plasma proteins which constitute nearly 10% of total serum proteins. These are important in activation of phagocytes, control of inflammation and cytolysis. They form one of the major immune defense systems of the body. The complement system plays important role both in innate and adaptive immune system. The main functions of complement are chemotaxis; opsonization and cell activation; immune clearance of immune complexes from circulation; lysis of target cells; triggering and amplification of inflammatory reactions and development of antibody responses. Evolutionary, the system is very ancient and is present even in invertebrate organisms like starfish and worms.