eChapters

Introduction

Buffaloes thrive best in the areas of moderate rainfall as they require plenty of water for their daily bath. They live on coarser grass and even then are heavy yielders of milk. Buffalo species is thought to have originated in India. Indian buffaloes are the descendant of Bos arni found in north-eastern parts of India, especially in Assam & surrounding areas. There are two main types of buffaloes in India: River and Swamp types. However, both are called Bubalus bubalis. Most of the buffaloes in India are river types, though swamp varieties are also found in certain parts of the country, especially in eastern parts. Buffalo is our main milch producing species, that’s why the contribution of buffaloes to the total milk production is larger than that of cattle. India is the home tract of some of the best buffalo breeds.

Introduction

Commercial pig farming in India is one of the best and profitable business ideas for the Indian people. There are several highly meat producing pig breeds available around the globes. Some of those are very suitable for commercial meat production according to the weather and climate of India. A few years back, pig farming had a bad image in the society, but at present at scenario has changed tremendously and commercial pig farming in India is no more restricted to lower class people. Now peoples are conscious about the economic value of pigs like other domestic livestock animals; and higher cast, educated people also started commercial pig farming business in a modern and scientific manner.

Among all domestic animals, pigs are the most prolific animal, giving 6-12 piglets in every litter and they are fast growing, attain a body weight of about 68 kg in about 6-8 months time, when they can slaughter. Pig has shortest generation interval among meat producing livestock. Pig products such as pork, bacon, ham, sausages, lord (pig fat) are increasingly in demand both for local consumption and for export. Pig skin used for the manufacture of light leather goods. Pig manure contains Nitrogen: 0.70%, Phosphorus: 0.60% and Potassium: 0.70%. Swine has superior feed conversion power (1: 3-3.5). Swine store fat rapidly. Pigs are prolific and bring quick return. A unit of 10 sows and 1 boar will produce about 160 piglets during the first year. Gilts may be bred between the ages of about 8-9 months furrowing when approximately 13 months old. Piggery enterprise requires moderate investment. Pig has highest dressing percentage (Pig: 65-80%) as compare to cattle (50-60%) and lamb and sheep (45-55%). Pork is the most nutritious meat. Pig is extremely sensitive to unfavorable ration and to careless management. Pigs are very susceptible to numerous diseases and parasites. Sow should required skilled attendants at the time of furrowing.

Introduction

Commercial pig farming in India is one of the best and profitable business ideas for the Indian people. There are several highly meat producing pig breeds available around the globes. Some of those are very suitable for commercial meat production according to the weather and climate of India. A few years back, pig farming had a bad image in the society, but at present at scenario has changed tremendously and commercial pig farming in India is no more restricted to lower class people. Now peoples are conscious about the economic value of pigs like other domestic livestock animals; and higher cast, educated people also started commercial pig farming business in a modern and scientific manner.

Among all domestic animals, pigs are the most prolific animal, giving 6-12 piglets in every litter and they are fast growing, attain a body weight of about 68 kg in about 6-8 months time, when they can slaughter. Pig has shortest generation interval among meat producing livestock. Pig products such as pork, bacon, ham, sausages, lord (pig fat) are increasingly in demand both for local consumption and for export. Pig skin used for the manufacture of light leather goods. Pig manure contains Nitrogen: 0.70%, Phosphorus: 0.60% and Potassium: 0.70%. Swine has superior feed conversion power (1: 3-3.5). Swine store fat rapidly. Pigs are prolific and bring quick return. A unit of 10 sows and 1 boar will produce about 160 piglets during the first year. Gilts may be bred between the ages of about 8-9 months furrowing when approximately 13 months old. Piggery enterprise requires moderate investment. Pig has highest dressing percentage (Pig: 65-80%) as compare to cattle (50-60%) and lamb and sheep (45-55%). Pork is the most nutritious meat. Pig is extremely sensitive to unfavorable ration and to careless management. Pigs are very susceptible to numerous diseases and parasites. Sow should required skilled attendants at the time of furrowing.

Introduction

Horses are adapted for run to quickly escape from predator. They possess an excellent sense of balance and strong fight or flight response. Related to this need to flee from predator in the wild is an extraordinary trait. Horses are able to sleep both ways i.e. standing up and lying down. Horses and humans interact in a wide variety of sport competitions and non-competitive recreational pursuit, as well as in working activities such as police work, agricultural, entertainment and therapy. Horses were historically used in warfare, from which a wide variety of riding and driving techniques developed using many different styles of equipments and methods of control. Many products are derived from horses, including meat, milk, hide, hair, bones, and pharmaceuticals extracted from the urine of pregnant mares.

Unit of measurement of Horse is Hand (1 Hand= 4 inch). NRC equine situated at Hissar, Haryana. Mares may give milk up to 18 litres daily. Famous donkey sanctuary situated at Devon in U.K. In India, there are 6 well known distinct breed of horses i.e. Marwari (Origin: Rajasthan), Kathiawari (Origin: Gujrat), Spiti (Origin: Tibet and Himachal Pradesh), Zankari (Origin: Jammu and Kashmir), Manipuri (Origin: Manipur and Assam) and Bhutia (Origin: Sikkim and Darjeeling). Besides these, FAO also recognized 3 more breeds: i.e. Chummarti (Origin: Tibet), Deccani, Sikang.

Introduction

Mithun is to be originated before more than 3000 years ago. Mithuns are found over a large area of southest Asia. This animal’s natural habitat is in the forests of highlands. In addition to meat production, Mithuns are used for sacrificial purposes and also for barter trade. Even today, Mithun is used as a holy sacrificial animal to appease the god by the tribe people. Mithun is a unique bovine species which are situated at limited geographical distribution. It is mainly found in the tropical rain forests of North Eastern hilly states of Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Manipur and Mizoram of India. Mithun is also known as “Cattle of Mountain”. In Indian subcontinents, Mithun is also known as “Gayal” (Bos frontalis). In Myanmar and Bhutan, it is called Mithun, whereas in China, it is called Dulong cattle.

Mithun is a magnificent massive bovine and is presently reared under free range condition in the hill forests at an altitude of 1000 to 3000 m above mean sea level. Mithun plays an important role in the socio-economic and cultural life of the local tribal population. Presently, this animal is mainly reared for meat, which is considered to be more tender and superior over the meat of any other species. Although, Mithun produce less quantity of milk and can be used for preparation of various milk products. Leather obtained from this species has been found to be superior to cattle.

The massive unique beautiful animal is anatomically a physiologically well adapted to high altitude. Mithun is a social animal; they establish small groups usually containing an adult male and several female and juveniles. It is a potential source of delicious meat, and it can also be used for improvement of local, native cattle breeds. Mithun hide has almost three times the size and thickness that of native cattle.

Introduction

Women entrepreneurship in economic development of any nation has been recognised for its significant contribution. The women folk can be considered as backbone of any nation. Now time has come for women empowerment. In rural Odisha, women not only play an important role for agricultural development but also plays significant role in allied agricultural sector such as dairy, fishery, poultry, mushroom production etc. In Indian condition dairy has been considered as “Rural Banking” as it is practiced mostly by majority of the marginal, small and landless farm families for their sustenance and livelihood. The role of rural women for animal husbandry is of paramount importance. In this sector they are managers as well as decision makers. Women do more than 80% dairy operation like cleaning, feeding, milking, marketing of milk and milk products. The state and central government initiate several scheme, programmes and projects for empowerment of women through various micro enterprises including dairy. Against this background a study was undertaken to identify the constraint faced by women entrepreneur in dairy sector in Khordha district of Odisha.

Introduction

The total population of India according to recent estimates in 2015 is 1.28 billion (Anonymous, 2011). The population in the age-group of 15-34 years in India increased from 353 million in 2001 to 430 million in 2011. More than 50 per cent of India’s current population is below the age of 25 years old and over 65 per cent below the age of 35 years old.

The total population of Chhattisgarh State is 25,545,198 of which male and female are 12,832,895 and 12,712,303. Sex ratio is 991 i.e. for each 1000 male, which is above national average of 940. Literacy rate in Chhattisgarh has seen upward trend and is 71.04 per cent (Anonymous, 2011). Out of total population of Chhattisgarh 23.24 per cent people live in urban regions and 76.76 per cent people live in the villages of rural areas.

Women are the most potent segment of the population of a country. The women of today are the hopes of tomorrow. They are the back bone of the country. The socioeconomic development and prosperity of rural areas depends to a considerable extent, on the type of women living in rural areas, because the rural women have abilities to orient themselves to go along the main stream of the development process. They reflect the national potentiality and represent the life blood of a nation. Development of women determines the development of community and country as a whole. So, the future of the country lies in their hands, what they will become, what role they will play in a democratic society and what they will do, will be dependent to a greater extent on the period between their childhood to adulthood.

The important convincing appealing and easily understood method of presenting the statistical data is the use of diagrams and graphs. Diagram makes the comparison of the data but graphs makes the relationship among the data.

Objective: Aggregated figures for merchandise export in India for eight years are as follows

Frequency Distribution is the arrangement of various values of a variable in order of magnitude either individually or in groups alongwith their corresponding frequencies or class frequencies. Frequency distribution is necessary for data condensation and revealing pattern within the data. Frequency distribution can be (i) Ungrouped Frequency Distribution (ii) Grouped frequency distribution.

In case ofungrouped frequency distribution, the individual values ofthe variable are arranged in ascending order alongwith their frequencies. Frequency is the number of times a particular observation is repeated.

In case of grouped frequency distribution, the values of variable are grouped into classes alongwith their corresponding class frequencies. Class frequency of a class is the number of observations lying within the upper class limit (maximum value) and lower class limit (minimum value) of the class.

Let us first illustrate the preparation of ungrouped frequency distribution. Consider 50 petridishes each containing 6 no.s of seeds for germination. Let the variable x_i denote the no. of seeds germinated in a petridish.

Frequency Distribution: A tabular presentation of the data in which the fre- quencies of values of a variable are given along with them is called a frequen- cy distribution. Two types of frequency distribution are available

1. Discrete Frequency Distribution or Ungrouped Frequency Distribution
2. Continuous Frequency Distribution or Grouped Frequency Distribution

Objective (a): Prepare a discrete frequency distribution from the following sentence in English: “Today there is hardly a phase of Endeavour which does not find statistical devices at least occasionally useful.”

Theory: This problem relates to discrete frequency distribution i. e. a frequency distribution which is formed by distinct values of a discrete or continuous variable.

Pie charts are useful to compare different parts of a whole amount. They are often used to present financial information. E.g. A farmer’s expenditure on farm can be shown to be the sum of its parts including different expense cate- gories such as cultivation, irrigation, sowing, harvesting, and general running costs (i.e. rent, electricity, fuel etc).

A pie chart is a circular chart in which the circle is divided into sectors. Each sector visually represents an item in a data set to match the amount of the item as a percentage or fraction of the total data set.

Introduction

India’s rural economy has benefited greatly from the dairy sector. It has played a significant role in bringing about socioeconomic change. India’s dairy industry has undergone significant change as a result of the White Revolution. The “White Revolution” can be credited with increasing milk availability and providing rural India with a stable source of employment and income. The business has drastically changed to meet India’s increasing demand for milk and milk products. India is currently the world’s greatest producer of milk. The Operation Flood Program is credited with this title. The dairy market in India is projected to increase at a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 6.61% from 2024 to 2029, from an estimated US$26.11 billion in 2024 to US$35.96 billion by 2029 (Indus Food, 2024). With over 8 crore farmers employed and a 5% national GDP contribution, the dairy industry in India is vital to the country’s economy. With around 25% of the world’s milk supply and a massive livestock population of 536.76 million animals, it tops the world in milk production. With major markets in the United Arab Emirates, Saudi Arabia, the United States, Singapore, and Bhutan, India exports approximately 63,738.47 metric tonnes of dairy products in 2023–2024, generating US$ 272.64 million.

Introduction
Consumer protection laws are designed to safeguard consumers’ rights, promote fair trade, and prevent businesses from exploiting or deceiving customers. Over the years, as markets have become more complex and products more sophisticated, the necessity for consumer protection has increased globally. India, as well as several Western countries, have established legal frameworks to protect consumers. This chapter delves into the Consumer Protection Act in India, comparing it with consumer laws in Western countries such as the United States, the United Kingdom, and the European Union. It aims to provide a comprehensive overview of the key features, enforcement mechanisms, and the role of consumer rights in economic growth and fairness.
Consumer Protection Act in India
Historical Background and Evolution
Consumer protection laws in India date back to the late 19th century with the Indian Contract Act, 1872, and later the Sale of Goods Act, 1930. However, dedicated consumer protection legislation did not emerge until the Consumer Protection Act of 1986, which aimed to protect consumers from unfair trade practices and inadequate services. The act established a framework for dispute resolution through consumer courts at the district, state, and national levels.
In 2019, the government repealed the 1986 Act and introduced the Consumer Protection Act of 2019, aiming to modernize consumer rights in line with contemporary market dynamics, especially in light of the growth of e-commerce.
Key Provisions of the Consumer Protection Act, 2019
The 2019 Act introduced several new provisions to address modern consumer challenges:

Introduction
In the modern era, technology plays an indispensable role in shaping consumer lifestyles and business operations. Understanding consumer preferences and attitudes toward new technology is crucial for organizations aiming to develop user- centric solutions, enhance customer satisfaction, and remain competitive in a rapidly evolving market. A Consumer Survey Questionnaire serves as a structured tool to gather insights directly from users about their behavior, perceptions, and expectations regarding new technology.
This chapter explores the concept, components, importance, and applications of such a survey while providing guidance on how to design and implement it effectively.
What is a Consumer Survey Questionnaire?
A Consumer Survey Questionnaire is a research instrument comprising a series of questions designed to gather data from individuals about their preferences, usage patterns, and attitudes. When focused on new technology, it seeks to uncover:
1. Preferences: The types of technologies consumers are interested in and their desired features.
2. Attitudes: How consumers perceive and adopt new technology, including their enthusiasm, concerns, and decision-making factors.
By identifying these aspects, organizations can refine product designs, marketing strategies, and customer support to align with consumer needs.

Microbial contamination sources: Foods may be contaminated by microorganisms at any time during harvest, storage, processing, distribution, handling, or preparation. The primary sources of microbial contamination are soil, air, animal feed, animal hides and intestines, plant surfaces, sewage, and food processing machinery or utensils. Since most foods either carry or eventually acquire bacteria, molds, or yeasts, microorganisms are the major causes of food spoilage. The increased load of microorganisms leads to rapid spoilage.

Organisms: Bacteria and fungi (yeasts and molds) are the principal types of microorganisms that cause food spoilage and food- borne illnesses. The typical microorganisms that cause food spoilage are bacteria (e.g., Pseudomonas), yeasts (e.g., Candida), and molds (e.g., Rhizopus). The growth of microorganisms in the food will increase the load of microorganisms, and the heavier load will add to the difficulty of preventing spoilage and may influence the kind of spoilage to be anticipated.

Food spoilage may be defined as any change that renders food unfit for human consumption. These changes may be caused by various factors, including contamination by microorganisms, infestation by insects, or degradation by endogenous enzymes (those present naturally in the food). In addition, physical and chemical changes, such as the tearing of plant or animal tissues or the oxidation of certain constituents of food, may promote food spoilage. Foods obtained from plant or animal sources begin to spoil soon after harvest or slaughter. The enzymes contained in the cells of plant and animal tissues may be released as a result of any mechanical damage inflicted during postharvest handling. These enzymes begin to break down the cellular material. The chemical reactions catalyzed by the enzymes result in the degradation of food quality, such as the development of off- flavours, the deterioration of texture, and the loss of nutrients. The enzymatic changes in foods are desirable to some extent as in the case of ripening of fruits, but continued enzymatic activity beyond an optimum point becomes food deterioration due to rotting. The native enzymes may be inactivated by heat, radiation or by the use of specific chemicals.

Tea as a Beverage

Tea is the most popular beverage consumed in the world after water. All types of teas including black. green, oolong, white and pu-erh tea are mainly made from the buds and young leaves of tea plants, Camellia sinensis (L.) O. Kuntze belongs to the family Theaceae [1]. Depending on the different processing techniques of tea leaves, tea types are categorized as “Green Tea” (unfermented), “Black Tea” (fully fermented), “Oolong Tea” (partially fermented), “Pu-ErhTea” (post fermented) and white tea (unfermented) [2]. The manufacturing process for these different types of teas mainly differ in the degree of enzymatic oxidation (fermentation) process [1].

Cell culture contamination continues to be a major problem and a subject of great concern. Contamination may enter the cell culture system as physical, chemical or biological component of the environment and biological contamination represent the greatest threat as living organism metabolize and replicate. Replication increases the titre of the contaminant.
 
Physical contamination : Physical components of cell culture systems such as radiation, irradiation (UV light and fluorescent light), temperature extremes can cause reduced cell growth and cell death. To minimize the problems, incubators should be located where ambient temperature is relatively constant and no vibration (near centrifuge). Media and media components should not be stored in glass door refrigerators, next to radioisotopes, bench tops or outside the refrigerator or in the hood for prolonged period.

Introduction

Coffee is a beverage made from the roasted and ground seeds of the African tropical evergreen coffee plant. Coffee is one of the world’s three most popular beverages (together with water and tea), as well as one of the most profitable international commodities, and it is the world’s second most marketed product after petroleum (Myhrvold, 2021).Coffee is a popular beverage that is enjoyed around the world for its taste, health benefits, and ability to enhance physical performance (Simkin, 2008).

16.1. CANNED FOODS-PRESERVATION

Canning is a method of preserving food from spoilage by storing it in containers that are hermetically sealed and then sterilized by heat. The process was invented after prolonged research by Nicolas Appert of France in 1809, in response to a call by his government for a means of preserving food for army and navy use. Appert’s method consisted of tightly sealing food inside a bottle or jar, heating it to a certain temperature, and maintaining the heat for a certain period, after which the container was kept sealed until use. It was 50 years before Louis Pasteur was able to explain why the food so treated did not spoil: the heat killed the microorganisms in the food, and the sealing kept other microorganisms from entering the jar. Samuel C. Prescott and William Underwood of the United States set canning on a scientific basis by describing specific time-temperature heating requirements for sterilizing canned foods.

Most vegetables, fruits, meat and dairy products, and processed foods are stored in tin cans, but soft drinks and many other beverages are now commonly stored in aluminum cans, which are lighter and do not rust. Aluminum cans are made by impact extrusion; the body of the can is punched out in one piece from a single aluminum sheet by a stamping die. This seamless piece, which has a rounded bottom, is then capped with a second piece as its lid. The tabs used in pop- top cans are also made of aluminum. Bimetal cans are made of aluminum bodies and steel lids.

Canneries are usually located close to the growing areas of the product to be packed, since it is desirable to can foods as quickly as possible after harvesting. The canning process itself consists of several stages: cleaning and further preparing the raw food material; blanching it; filling the containers, usually under a vacuum; closing and sealing the containers; sterilizing the canned products; and labeling and warehousing the finished goods. Cleaning usually involves passing the raw food through tanks of water or under high- pressure water sprays, after which vegetable or other products are cut, peeled, cored, sliced, graded, soaked, pureed, and so on. Almost all vegetables and some fruits require blanching by immersion in hot water or steam; this process softens the vegetable tissues and makes them pliable enough to be packed tightly, while also serving to inactivate enzymes that can cause undesirable changes in the food before canning. Blanching also serves as an additional or final cleansing operation.

10.1 CEREALS AND CEREAL PRODUCTS

CONTAMINATION: The sources of contamination in cereals and cereal products are soil, insects, air, etc. Most of the microorganisms are removed with the outer portions of the grain during milling. The bleaching agents used during milling also reduce numbers of microorganisms. The bacteria in wheat flour include Bacillus, Micrococcus, Flavobacterium. Mold spores are chiefly of Aspergillus spp and Penicillium spp and in addition Alternaria, Cladosporium and other genera are found. The numbers of microbes in cereals and cereal products vary widely from few hundred per gram to million. Corn meal contains several hundred to several thousand bacteria and mold per gram.