eChapters

Introduction

Poultry are domesticated birds mostly reared for the purpose of meat and egg consumption as well as for their feathers. It includes chickens, quails, turkeys, waterfowls, ducks and geese. The endocrine system of poultry consists of hypothalamic-hypophyseal complex, parathyroid gland, thyroid gland, pancreatic islet cells, adrenal glands, ultimobranchial glands, endocrine cells of gut and the gonads. These endocrine organs release hormones into the bloodstream. Peptide hormones act on the surface of cells, whereas steroid hormones act on target tissues by entering in the cytoplasm or nucleus of cells. Lack of diagnosis in the case of endocrinopathies is a major cause of production loss globally. Advancement in awareness, diagnosis, treatment as well as management is critical to ensure optimal flock health. Cost-effective programs of biosecurity and vaccination are required to prevent or limit the impact of disease. Programs of emergency treatment and long-term prevention are justified for severe endocrine diseases which have a profound impact on production.

Introduction

Knowledge of the avian respiratory system is essential for developing a health monitoring plan for a poultry flock, recognizing problems that may occur, and taking action to correct them. The avian respiratory system begins with nostril includes trachea, bronchi (bronchus) and ends with lungs and air sacs. Respiratory diseases are the most common cause of death in a poultry flock.

The avian respiratory system is involved in the following functions:

• Absorption of oxygen (O2)

• Release of carbon dioxide (CO2)

• Release of heat (temperature regulation)

• Detoxification of certain chemicals

• Rapid adjustments of acid/base balance

• Vocalization

ELECTROLYTE BALANCE

Electrolytes like sodium, potassium, and chloride are substances that dissolve into posi tively and negatively charged particles when mixed with a liquid. The interaction between these substances, referred to as the ‘dietary electrolyte balance (DEB), can be influenced by either the electrolyte itself or the additional salt source used.

Dietary inclusion of potassium and chloride has shown positive effects on heat-stressed broilers. Among various salt options for broiler diets, sodium bicarbonate and potassium chloride have been identified as the optimal choices, especially during hot summer conditions.

Electrolyte balance is often quantified by the uncomplicated equation Na + K – Cl expressed in terms of mEq/kg of diet. An ideal overall dietary equilibrium ranging from 240 to 260 mEq/kg is generally deemed optimal for normal physiological functioning. The body’s buffering systems play a pivotal role in maintaining a close-to-normal physiological pH, thus preventing deviations in electrolyte levels. The principal function of electrolytes pertains to the regulation of body water and ionic equilibrium. Consequently, the requisites for elements like sodium, potassium, and chloride can’t be viewed in isolation; it’s the collective equilibrium that holds significance. The term “electrolyte balance,” synonymous with acid-base balance, is influenced by three factors:

1. The equilibrium and proportion of these electrolytes in the diet.

2. Endogenous production of acids.

3. The pace of renal clearance.

Introduction

A thoroughly performed physical examination in poultry and avian clinical practice is of great importance. Most avian species happen to be prey animals, with the exception of a few raptors that tend to be predatory. This makes them try to appear healthy, in preparation to escape from potential predators, and as such, makes it difficult for their owners, keepers and veterinarians to detect early diseases. Physical examination when carefully performed in detail, increases the chances of obtaining fewer differential diagnosis that are likely to be harboring the confirmatory diagnosis after laboratory works are being performed. In essence, a thorough physical examination brings about cost efficiency in poultry/ avian clinical practice. Take for instance, a farm with over 50,000 layers, having lowered productivity. It will be cumbersome to go ahead and start blood sampling, faecal sampling or oral cavity swabs for laboratory analysis as the starting point. The disadvantages will be high labour demands, high capital demands, more stress on the animals and of course, long time till feasible outcome is to be obtained.

Introductioin

Poultry diseases can be caused by bacteria, viruses, fungi, parasites, or a combination of these pathogens. Common poultry diseases include Newcastle disease, avian influenza, infectious bronchitis, infectious bursal disease, coccidiosis, and salmonellosis, among others (Grace et al., 2024). These diseases can affect various organs and systems in poultry, including the respiratory, gastrointestinal, and immune systems, leading to a wide range of clinical signs and symptoms (Dunislawska et al., 2024). Prevention and control of diseases in poultry is paramount for maintaining the health and welfare of poultry f locks and ensuring the sustainability of the poultry industry. Poultry diseases can have devastating effects on production, leading to decreased productivity, increased mortality rates, and significant economic losses. Therefore, implementing effective prevention and control measures is essential for poultry producers to mitigate the risks associated with diseases (George & George, 2023).

Any abnormal condition, which affects the normal functioning of cells, tissues, organs and any other system in an individual, is called a disease. In all living organisms, including plants, animals, birds and humans, diseases can be caused due to infectious or non-infectious agents and various other factors. Laboratory tests may identify organisms directly (eg, visually, using a microscope, growing the organism in culture) or indirectly (eg, identifying antibodies to the organism). Some tests (eg, Gram stain, routine aerobic culture) can detect a large variety of pathogens and are commonly done for many suspected infectious illnesses. However, because some pathogens are missed on these tests, clinicians must be aware of the limitations of each test for each suspected pathogen. In such cases, clinicians should request tests specific for the suspected pathogen (eg, special stains or culture media or advise the laboratory of the suspected organism(s) so that it may select more specific tests. The main causative factors of diseases in humans include internal factors, genetic irregularities, allergies, poor immune system, external factors and a lot more.

Introduction

The current health situation in poultry farming is dotted with cases where these emerging or re-emerging diseases attack birds. A large majority of them are of viral origin and a powerful immunosuppressive effect is observed, sometimes accompanied by bacterial infections. Most of the important infectious diseases of poultry have been known for many years and are controlled by medication, vaccination, eradication and bio-security. Examples of such diseases that were known before the intensive commercial poultry industry development are infectious bronchitis (IB), newcastle disease (ND), infectious bursal disease (IBD), lymphoid leucosis and so on. From time to time, new diseases emerge to provide fresh challenges for diagnosis, control and understanding of their epidemiology.

World Health Organization (WHO) definition of an emerging disease is defined as a disease that has appeared in a population for the first time, or that may have existed previously but is rapidly increasing in incidence or geographic range. Diseases that reappear after a period of absence can be considered as re-emerging. Some of these include runting/ stunting syndrome and inclusion body hepatitis. In addition, other well-established diseases evolve in different ways and can also present problems for diagnosis and control. In the wider sphere, it is recognized that emerging viral infections in both humans and animals have been reported with increased frequency in recent years. Examples are SARS, avian influenza, West Nile virus and the Nipah virus. The more recent diseases of viral origin, others that have re-emerged and some experiences from previous emerging diseases are living examples for threat to the poultry industries. In addition, infectious bronchitis is an example of a disease which the causal virus is showing constant evolution. The impact of infections caused by the avian metapneumovirus (aMPV) is an example of recently emerged viral agent.

Introduction

The quality of interaction between clinicians and microbiologists has an enormous influence on the effectiveness of the laboratory service. An accurate diagnosis is based on the interpretation of both clinical and laboratory data. Investigation of disease is solely dependent on the quality and appropriateness of the specimens collected. The diagnosis depends on the skill and care with which the clinicians select, collect and transport the specimen to the laboratory. Clinical history, including the tentative diagnosis, should always accompany the specimen. If available, a detailed post-mortem report must also be sent. These set of information will help the microbiologist to select the most appropriate procedure and to furnish a meaningful interpretation of the results.

Specimens need to be collected for establishing a disease diagnosis or monitoring of vaccine response or surveillance. The knowledge of the pathogenesis of the infectious disease is the most important factor for determining the most suitable specimen. The samples need to be appropriate, and adequate in number and amount to provide a statistically valid result. Samples must be taken with care, to avoid undue stress or damage to the bird or danger to the operator. Careful consideration must be given to the collection, containment, and storage of the specimens, including biosafety measures to prevent spillage to the environment or exposure of other birds and humans.

Introduction

The control of infectious diseases of bacterial etiology in food animals is often by using collective and simultaneous medication of a group, i.e. the so-called preventive uses prophylaxis and metaphylaxis. These uses are vigorously debated because they involve the mass consumption of antibiotics that is suspected to favour the emergence of resistant bacteria, especially in the gut flora, which is critical for the potential transfer of resistance to humans via the food chain. Metaphylaxis corresponds to the administration of antibiotics to animals experiencing any level of bacterial disease before overt disease occurs, with the time of intervention depending on the detection of disease outbreaks in a few animals in the group. Metaphylaxis is launched after (meta) pathogen contamination, with the goal of the bacteriological cure of infected animals, which subsequently warrants the final protection (phylaxis) against infection outbreaks. In this respect, metaphylaxis should be viewed as a curative treatment occurring early in the time scale of the infection, and should be compared to classical curative treatments of sick animals. The pathophysiological status of the animals and the size of the bacterial load at the infection site are specificities of metaphylaxis that could play an important role in antibiotic pharmacodynamics, including the reduction of resistance selection within the pathogenic inoculum. Recent advances have been made in evaluating the antibiotic doses required for clinical and bacteriological cures, depending on the size of bacterial load at the infection site. The observations that total doses were much lower for early treatments when bacterial loads were small, compared to later treatments of sick animals with higher bacterial loads, reinforces the in vivo relevance of the so called ‘inoculum effect’, whatever its underlying mechanisms.

Introduction

The protozoa (meaning proto- first and zoa mean animals) are considered to primitive and are unicellular organism. The protozoa are Eukaryotic organism having nucleus in which the genetic information is stored in chromosomes of nucleus. In poultry, the protozoan disease categorized into two main group

1. Intestinal protozoan parasites include Eimeria spp. (Coccidiosis), Cryptosporidia (Cryptosporidiosis) Histomoniasis (Histomonas meleagridis), Trichomoniasis (Trichomonas spp.) and Spironucleus (Hexamitiasis).

Coccidiosis is important disease of poultry caused by protozoa of the genus Eimeria. The disease occurs by ingestion of sporulated oocyst ehcih upon action of trypsin rupture in gizzard and proventriculus relealeses sporozoites. The sprozoites penetrate mucosa of intestine and two generation of asexual reproduction occurs (Schizogony) and releases merozoites which mature and produces gamonts. Sexyual reproduction occurs (Gametogony) and produses zygot which mature to form oocysts. The oocysts are passed in faeces. The high moisture (exceeding 30%), immunosuppressive diseses and environmental and managemental stress lead to occurrence of disease. The birds affected with coccidiosis show depression, ruffled feathers, blood tinged diarrhoea and pale comb and wattle. Specific part of intestine is affected by each species of Eimeria. Diagnosis of coccidiosis is done by finding oocyst in faeces under microscope.

Introduction

Rickettsial diseases in poultry are caused by various species of bacteria belonging to the genus Rickettsia. These diseases can have significant economic implications for the poultry industry due to decreased production, increased mortality, and trade restrictions. Rickettsial diseases affecting poultry are relatively uncommon compared to other pathogens but can still occur. Rickettsial organisms are tiny, pleomorphic, weakly gram-negative bacilli that multiply by binary fission. The Rickettsia requires an arthropod for transmission and to complete its life cycle. The organisms are non-motile and non-capsulated and possess both DNA and RNA. Some of the rickettsial diseases affecting poultry include:

1. Rocky Mountain spotted fever: Chickens can be infected with various species of Rickettsia, including Rickettsia rickettsia, which causes Rocky Mountain spotted fever in humans. In chickens, rickettsial infections can lead to symptoms such as fever, lethargy, decreased egg production, respiratory distress, and neurological signs.

1. Prosthogonimus pellucidus is found in

a) Fowl

b) Duck

c) Both

d) None

2. Heterakis gallinarum is found in

a) Fowl

b) Pea fowl

c) Guinea fowl

d) All

Flea of Brds

Ceratophyllus gallinae – commonest flea of domestic poultry may be responsible for irritation, restlessness and even anaemia Feeds readily on humans and domestic pets and its often acquired in the handling of poultry and from injured and wild birds brought into houses could migrate into rooms from nests under adjacent caves.

Echidnophaga gallinacea -‘stick tight’ flea-seen on the skin of the fowl (usually comb and wattles). Absence of genal and pronotal comb. Fleas established in a poultry house - Remove and burn all litter them spray the poultry house with an insectide.

Mites of Birds

Introduction

Avian mycoplasmosis is caused by several pathogenic mycoplasma of which mycoplasmosis due to Mycoplasma gallisepticum (Mg), Mycoplasma synoviae (MS) and Mycoplasma meleagridis are important. The mycoplasma are group of bacteria that lack cell wall due to which the shape of bacteria is pleomorphic. Due to lack of cell wal, mycoplasma are resistant to those drug which act on cell wall and includes Penicillin and its derivatives. Mycoplasma primarily affects respiratory system and joints in birds and respiratory and urogenital system in humans. The avian mycoplasma are mainly transmitted by vertical route (egg transmission), but can also transmitted by horizontal route. Mycoplasma gallisepticum (Mg) causes chronic respiratory disease (CRD) in chicken, turkeys and game birds. Mycoplasma synoviae (Ms) causes infectious synovitis in chicken and turkeys whereas Mycoplasma meleagridis cause disease in turkey. The Mg and Ms belongs to class of Mollicutes (Molecutis: soft tissue), order Mycoplasmatales and family Mycoplasmataceae. The CRD caused by Mg affects respiratory system and air sac in presence of other respiratory pathogen/ stress or immunosuppression. Clinically, CRD affected birds show respiratory rales, gasping, nasal discharge, and rhinitis with mortality due to complication with other respiratory viral pathogens or E. coli infection. The Ms has affinity for tendon and ligaments of joint causing severe lameness due to tenosynovitis with mild lesions in respiratory system and air sac. The Ms affected birds show lameness, breast blister and increased culling of male breeder birds. The Mg and Ms causes significant losses in poultry industry due to decreased egg production, condemnation and downgrading of carcass and decreased hatchability. Mycoplasma meleagridis in turkey associated with air sacculitis and drop in egg production.

1. What is a characteristic feature of fungal cell walls?

a) Peptidoglycans

b) Ergosterol and polysaccharides

c) Antiphagocytic capsules

d) Fruiting bodies

2. How do fungi reproduce in tissues?

a) Binary fission

b) Budding

c) Simple division of round, yeast-like forms or slender, tubular hyphae

d) Spore formation

1. How does the toxin of Clostridium botulinum affect the nervous system?

a) Blocks inhibitory transmitter substance

b) Stimulates macrophages

c) Causes haemolysis and tissue destruction

d) Induces systemic shock and death

What is the specific effect of the toxin produced by Clostridium perfringens on host cells?

a) Blocks inhibitory transmitter substance

b) Induces systemic shock

c) Causes ribosomal dysfunction

d) Disrupts plasma membranes

Introduction

The Poultry industry stands as one of the most advanced sectors globally. The impact of diseases on poultry can be profoundly detrimental, affecting productivity, trade of live birds, meat and related products. Vulnerabilities in biosecurity within production sites, as well as weaknesses in disease diagnosis, pave the way for emerging pathogens to establish as persistent threats. In numerous tropical and developing nations poultry infections like viscerotropic velogenic New castle disease have become endemic, leading to disastrous losses. Many developing countries contend with a prevalence of vertically transmitted diseases among village-level flocks, including ailments like pullorum disease and mycoplasmosis. The combination of hot, humid climates fosters mycotoxicosis, compounded by prevalent immunosuppressive diseases, which in turn hinder the effectiveness of vaccination efforts. In the absence of robust quarantine measures and government – mandated control programs, disease can persist within both commercial and local flocks. The introduction of new infections further compounds the vulnerability of susceptible poultry populations.

What is book keeping?
Book keeping    is defined as;
1. The art of recording business transactions (pecuniary transactions) in a regulator and systematic manner.
2. Book keeping is the science and art of correctly recording in books of  accounts all those business transactions that result in the transfer of  money or money’s worth.
3. Book keeping is an art of recording day to day business transactions in a  set of books in a most systematic manner.
4. It is the process of analysing, classifying and recording transaction in accordance with pre-conceived plan.

Popularly the term management is used to refer to the group of managerial personnel of an enterprise. But the use of the term management in this sense is not correct, because the managerial personnel of an enterprise are usually designated as ‘managers’, ‘executives’ or administrators. Strictly speaking the term management refers to functional concept of management. Management refers to the sum total of all those functions or activities, which relate to the laying down of policies, plans and purposes, securing men, money, machinery needed for the achievement of the organisational objectives, putting all of them into operation and supervising and checking their performances in order to ensure the productive use of human and material resources for the maximum benefit or profit of the organisation, its employees and society in general.

Management is the sum total of five principal functions namely planning, organising, staffing, directing and controlling. The functional areas of management include: a) Financial management, b) Personnel management, c) material management, d) Production management, e) marketing management and f) Office management.