eChapters

This chapter introduces the processing of shell eggs into industrial egg products. It classifies products according to egg fraction and physical state, including whole egg, albumen, yolk, liquid, frozen and dried products. Breaking and separation operations, liquid egg production, pasteurization, freezing, dehydration, spray drying and desugarization are discussed. The chapter also covers quality control, packaging and storage of processed egg products. Particular attention is given to balancing microbiological safety with functional properties during pasteurization and processing.

This chapter introduces the concepts of internal and external egg quality and explains the methods used to measure important quality attributes. It covers shell quality, shell strength, cleanliness, shape, albumen quality, yolk quality, air-cell characteristics and freshness. Classical indices such as Haugh unit, yolk index and specific gravity are discussed alongside candling and modern non-destructive instrumental techniques. The chapter also explains how egg quality changes during storage through moisture and carbon-dioxide loss and provides a scientific basis for interpreting quality measurements and applying them in commercial grading.

This chapter introduces systematic approaches for controlling biological, chemical and physical hazards throughout the egg chain. It explains the seven principles of HACCP and their application to shell eggs and egg products. Prerequisite programmes, GMP, GHP, FSSAI regulations, international regulatory frameworks, traceability, recall management and risk communication are discussed. A worked HACCP plan for liquid egg demonstrates how hazards and critical control points can be identified and controlled. The chapter emphasizes that egg safety requires an integrated farm-to-fork approach rather than relying solely on processing-plant controls.

Reproductive Organs of Fowl and Formation of Egg

The reproductive system of a hen is a fascinating and intricate setup designed to produce one of nature’s most perfect foods-the egg. Understanding this system requires a look into its two primary components: the ovary and the oviduct.

The Ovary

The ovary is where the magic begins. A hen typically has two ovaries, but in most cases, only the left ovary develops fully and remains functional. The right ovary, although present, becomes rudimentary and non-functional. The left ovary is responsible for the formation of ova, the initial stage of the egg.

Inside the ovary of a hen are approximately 2000 visible yolk-filled ova. These ova are the potential eggs, each waiting to be developed and released. As a hen matures, these ova progress through various stages of development. The transformation from an immature pullet, which has a small, undeveloped oviduct weighing about 1.1 grams, to a mature pullet ready to lay eggs, involves significant changes. By the time a pullet lays her first egg, her oviduct has grown to weigh around 77.2 grams.

Introduction

Proper electrical wiring and earthing are crucial for laboratory safety and functionality. A laboratory houses several installations/equipment that demand stable/continuous power supply. Inappropriate or faulty wiring and earthing may lead to significant risks, including electrical shocks, damage to equipment, and even incidence of fire. Therefore, understanding the requirements of electrical wiring and earthing is essential for designing, construction, and maintenance of laboratory. This chapter aims to provide a basic knowledge of electrical wiring and earthing necessary for a laboratory. Importance of earthing in mitigating electrical hazards and ensuring integrity of electrical installations are also described.

Basics of Electrical Wiring

Basic understanding of electrical wiring is necessary for laboratory safety and efficient electrical functioning. The potential difference between two electrical points (negative and positive) is known as Voltage, which drives the flow of electric current. This is measured as volt (V). The rate of flow of electricity in a circuit is known as Current (I), which is measured as ampere (A). Current can be either direct (DC) or alternating (AC). Opposition/resistance experienced in the flow of current in circuit is known as Resistance (R) and it is measured in ohms (Ω). Higher the resistance means lesser the current flows at a given voltage. The rate at which electrical energy is transferred/utilized in an electric circuit is known as Power (P), which is measured in watt (W). The Power can be calculated as the product of voltage and current (P = V × I).

ELECTROLYTE BALANCE

Electrolytes like sodium, potassium, and chloride are substances that dissolve into posi tively and negatively charged particles when mixed with a liquid. The interaction between these substances, referred to as the ‘dietary electrolyte balance (DEB), can be influenced by either the electrolyte itself or the additional salt source used.

Dietary inclusion of potassium and chloride has shown positive effects on heat-stressed broilers. Among various salt options for broiler diets, sodium bicarbonate and potassium chloride have been identified as the optimal choices, especially during hot summer conditions.

Electrolyte balance is often quantified by the uncomplicated equation Na + K – Cl expressed in terms of mEq/kg of diet. An ideal overall dietary equilibrium ranging from 240 to 260 mEq/kg is generally deemed optimal for normal physiological functioning. The body’s buffering systems play a pivotal role in maintaining a close-to-normal physiological pH, thus preventing deviations in electrolyte levels. The principal function of electrolytes pertains to the regulation of body water and ionic equilibrium. Consequently, the requisites for elements like sodium, potassium, and chloride can’t be viewed in isolation; it’s the collective equilibrium that holds significance. The term “electrolyte balance,” synonymous with acid-base balance, is influenced by three factors:

1. The equilibrium and proportion of these electrolytes in the diet.

2. Endogenous production of acids.

3. The pace of renal clearance.

Electromagnetic and advanced heating technologies offer rapid and energy-efficient alternatives to conventional food processing. These systems use microwaves, radio frequency, electrical resistance, infrared radiation, lasers, photonic energy and dielectric heating to generate heat within food or directly at its surface. Faster and more uniform energy transfer can improve microbial inactivation, shorten processing time and reduce damage to nutrients and sensory characteristics. The chapter explains the principles, mechanisms, applications and nutritional effects of microwave, radio-frequency, ohmic and infrared heating. It also considers laser-based and photonic techniques. Particular attention is given to heating uniformity, product properties, equipment control, energy efficiency and the prevention of underprocessed areas.

Introduction

The basic physiological structures of mammary glands in all species are almost same and are located externally in order to fulfill the milk requirement of neonates after parturition. The process of secretion of milk from the mammary glands is known as lacto genesis. Milk provides an almost complete nutrition to neonates from birth till weaning period. It is a complex mixture of various constituents like:

Lipids such a striacyl glycerols(TAG),phospholipids,cholesterols and other sterols, free fatty acids and fat-soluble vitamins

Carbohydrates such as lactose, oligosaccharides

Proteins such a scaseins, α-lactalbumin, β-lactoglobulin, immunoglobulin’s, bovine serum albumin, lactoferrin, lysozyme, enzymes, hormones and growth factors

Non-protein nitrogenous compounds like urea, creatine, creatinine, uric acid and amino acids

Major and minor minerals, water-soluble vitamins and cells (leucocytes, macrophages, and epithelial cells).

Emerging preservation technologies are being developed to meet increasing expectations for food safety, nutritional quality, sustainability and longer shelf life. Greater investigation remains necessary to understand their effects, limitations and suitability for large-scale industrial application. This chapter examines innovative physical, chemical and biological methods used at different stages of the food chain. Technologies include plasma-activated water, cold atmospheric plasma, advanced oxidation, electrolysed water, space-food preservation, hurdle systems and biopreservation. Their mechanisms involve reactive species, microbial membrane damage, oxidation, combined environmental stresses and beneficial biological agents. The chapter assesses their applications, advantages and disadvantages while highlighting research, regulation, process standardisation, equipment cost and commercial scalability.

This chapter introduces emerging technologies and future directions shaping egg science and the egg industry. It examines novel and non-thermal processing, active and intelligent packaging, sustainable packaging, egg analogues and plant-based alternatives, precision layer farming and digital tools. Nutraceutical and pharmaceutical applications are also explored. The chapter evaluates the environmental footprint and sustainability of egg production and identifies research gaps and opportunities, particularly for India. It concludes with a future-oriented perspective on improving cold-chain infrastructure, grading, food safety, welfare, value addition, sensing and evidence-based development of the Indian egg industry.

Introduction

The current health situation in poultry farming is dotted with cases where these emerging or re-emerging diseases attack birds. A large majority of them are of viral origin and a powerful immunosuppressive effect is observed, sometimes accompanied by bacterial infections. Most of the important infectious diseases of poultry have been known for many years and are controlled by medication, vaccination, eradication and bio-security. Examples of such diseases that were known before the intensive commercial poultry industry development are infectious bronchitis (IB), newcastle disease (ND), infectious bursal disease (IBD), lymphoid leucosis and so on. From time to time, new diseases emerge to provide fresh challenges for diagnosis, control and understanding of their epidemiology.

World Health Organization (WHO) definition of an emerging disease is defined as a disease that has appeared in a population for the first time, or that may have existed previously but is rapidly increasing in incidence or geographic range. Diseases that reappear after a period of absence can be considered as re-emerging. Some of these include runting/ stunting syndrome and inclusion body hepatitis. In addition, other well-established diseases evolve in different ways and can also present problems for diagnosis and control. In the wider sphere, it is recognized that emerging viral infections in both humans and animals have been reported with increased frequency in recent years. Examples are SARS, avian influenza, West Nile virus and the Nipah virus. The more recent diseases of viral origin, others that have re-emerged and some experiences from previous emerging diseases are living examples for threat to the poultry industries. In addition, infectious bronchitis is an example of a disease which the causal virus is showing constant evolution. The impact of infections caused by the avian metapneumovirus (aMPV) is an example of recently emerged viral agent.

Introduction

Emu (Dromadius navaehollandiae) are reared commercially in many parts of the world for their meat, oil, skin and feathers, which are high economic value. Emu is considered as one of the latest emerging species in India. It is an exciting and rewarding new agri-business. Next to the ostrich, the Emu is the largest living flightless bird, standing more than 1.5 m tall, length varies from 130-190 cm, weight more than 45-55 kg, the wings are atrophied and the feathers are of earth-greyish to grey-brownish colour. Emus are curious and docile birds. Emu has a more slender body than an ostrich. But it has a shorter neck covered with feathers and fattier than an Ostrich. Body is covered with drab coloured plumage and both the sexes are similar having dark grey head and neck. There are no large decorative plumes in the male’s tail. The feathers are very primitive and look like coarse hair.

The anatomical and physiological feathers of these birds appear to be suitable for temperate and tropical climatic conditions. These birds can be well maintained on extensive and semi-intensive rearing systems with reasonably high fibrous diets. United state, Australia and China are leading in Emu. Emu is introduced recently into India. The Emu is a large flightless bird. They have 3 toes and long legs which allows them to run extremely fast. In this species, the female is larger than the male. Emu, feed on grass, leaves and small insects. They live all over Australia in grasslands. The female lays up to 20 eggs, which are large and are soft dark green in colour. These eggs are often prized not only by humans for decoration pieces, but by animals as a food source. The male incubates the eggs for a period of 7-8 weeks, and does not leave the nest for this period. When the eggs hatch, the male Emu looks after the hatchlings for another six month. The Emu is the world’s third largest bird. The Ostrich and Cassowary take the top positions. The nest of an Emu can be up to 1.5 meters wide.

This chapter introduces the major textile and non-textile applications of wool and relates end-use requirements to fibre properties. It examines apparel, carpets, blankets, upholstery, knitting products, interiors and technical textiles. The chapter considers how fineness, length, strength, crimp, colour, resilience and thermal behaviour influence product selection. It also highlights the continuing importance of wool in premium and specialized markets and explains how processing technology enables wool to meet different performance and design requirements.

1. Prosthogonimus pellucidus is found in

a) Fowl

b) Duck

c) Both

d) None

2. Heterakis gallinarum is found in

a) Fowl

b) Pea fowl

c) Guinea fowl

d) All

Endometritis in cow is actually the inflammation of endometrium that is inner lining of the uterus. It occurs after bacterial contamination of uterus at calving, during A.I. following dystocia, retention of placenta, abortion etc. There is expulsion of white or whitish-yellow muco-purulent discharge from vagina. The animal does not shows systemic signs like increase in temperature, increase in respiration rate, anorexia, toxemia etc as in metritis. However, the animal fails to conceive even after repeated inseminations.

Livestock sector is an important subsector of the agriculture of Indian economy. It forms an important livelihood activity for most of the farmers, supporting agriculture in the form of critical inputs, contributing to the household, supplementing incomes, offering employment opportunities, and finally it acts as a supplementary and complementary enterprise. Livestock plays a vital role in the economic development of the country. Livestock Sector has continuously been growing and contributed 4.90% (at constant prices) of total GVA (Gross Value Added) in 2020-21 (Annual Report, 2021-2022). India ranks first among the world’s milk producing nations, achieving an annual production of 230.58 million tonnes of milk and with per capita availability of 459 gms/day during the year 2022-23 (Annual Report, 2022-2023). In India, livestock population includes cattle (193.46 million), buffalo (109.85 million), sheep (74.26 million) and goat (148.88 million) (20 th Livestock Census, 2019). The rapidly expanding demand for livestock products offers an opportunity as well as a challenge to livestock production. The livestock sector is moving towards specialization with the increasing involvement

Entrepreneur is a person who takes the responsibility of initiating and establishing an enterprise or an organisation under conditions of uncertainty.

Some of the essential qualities of entrepreneurs are as follows

1. Creativity
2. Passion
3. Motivation
4. Product or service knowledge
5. Ability to network
6. Self-confidence
7. Optimism
8. Vision
9. Goal mindset
10. Risk-taking
11. Persuasiveness
12. Decision-making
13. Tenacity
14. Money management
15. Adaptability

7.1. Introduction
Entrepreneurs serve as the catalysts for the introduction of innovative technologies and systems that ultimately lead to societal advancements. These innovations are linked to enhanced lifestyles, progressive thinking, morale, and bravery, along with an improved standard of living. National and global changes are greatly influenced by such kinds of social change. Joseph Schumpeter, an Australian famous economist, is referred to as the father of entrepreneurship. Dhirubhai Ambani was the most enterprising Indian entrepreneur. Jamsetji Tata set a bar for entrepreneurship development in India with the foundation of the Tata group. The father of entrepreneurship in India is Ratan Tata. In public health, nutrition-based entrepreneurship and self-employment are also another emerging topic nowadays. Several entrepreneurs are found in this field mostly due to the challenge of building a business and craving to control their destiny. Not only that, financial independence, personal satisfaction, relief from the frustration of working for someone else, and the opportunity to create the desired lifestyle. Nutrition entrepreneurship offers numerous business-related resources and provides services for social well-being. As for example, the transformation of raw food ingredients into consumable food products, entrepreneurship plays a key role in diversifying and commercializing agricultural products. It adds value of food, prolongs its shelf life, promotes the export of processed items, generates employment opportunities, boosts farmers’ earnings, and makes a significant contribution to the general development of rural areas. Health entrepreneurs like nutritionists, dietitians, physicians, and health counsellors run their practice and make it available for the client to listen to their problems and solve their problems through mental support, motivation, diet therapy, medication, and so on. As a result, the health burdens due to noncommunicable and communicable diseases are reduced.

Entrepreneur

The word “Entrepreneur” is derived from the French verb ?Entreprendre?. It means ?to begin something? or ?to undertake?. In the early 16th century the Frenchmen who organized and led military expeditions were referred as ?Entrepreneurs?. In the early 18th century French economist Richard Cantillon used the term entrepreneur to business. Since that time the word entrepreneur means one who takes the risk of starting a new organization or introducing a new idea, product or service to society. An entrepreneur is a person who starts an enterprise. He has right to own his business and to make a profit. Some economist says that entrepreneur is one who is willing to bear the risk of a new venture if there is a significant chance for profit. Others emphasize the entrepreneur?s role as an innovator who markets his innovation. Still other economists say that entrepreneurs develop new goods or processes that the market demands and are not currently being supplied. Different researchers have elaborated qualities of Entrepreneurs. Schumpeter said that entrepreneurs are innovators who use a process of creative destruction of the established ways of creating/doing existing products and services, to set up new products, new services. David McClelland proposed that an entrepreneur is a person with a high need for achievement. He is energetic and a moderate risk taker. Peter Drucker said that an entrepreneur searches for change, responds to it and exploits change as an opportunity. In the words of Albert Shapero, Entrepreneurs take initiative, accept risk of failure and have an internal locus of control. Entrepreneurship as explained by various scholars laid emphasis on a wide spectrum of activities such as self employment of any sort, creation of organizations and innovation.

(Method of Joseph Mac Gee, 1959)
Principle

A simple and rapid enzymatic method for the quantitative estimation of total cis-methylene- interrupted polyenoic acids has been devised. Linoleic, linolenic and arachidonic acids, the more common acids of this group were used to calibrate the method. The potassium salts of the fatty acids are oxidised by atmospheric oxygen in the presence of the enzyme lipo-oxidase, and the absorption of the conjugated diene hydroperoxide is measured at 234 mµ. As little as 5 µg of linoleic acid can be quantitatively measured with good accuracy and precision. The total content of polyunsaturated fatty acids containing the cismethylene-interrupted diene structure of fats, oils, hydrogenated oils, fatty acids, esters blood plasma, microorganisms and plant seeds has been measured directly by this method.