eChapters

Ideas, materials, facilities, processes and labourare clubbed together to produce a worthwhile product-milksuccessfully and this may be the art and science of management. In otherwords, weput togethertheinputs-soil, labour, hay, fertility, silage into milk and such transformations are the result of a purposeful and pre-meditated action-management and not just by happenstance.

Decisionmaking role of dairy farm manager Manager of dairy farm decides :

• What to do !

• How to do !

• When to do !

For answeringtheabove, themanager mustplan to co-ordinate, organize, control and direct his supportive staff. For accomplishing his targets, the manager must gatherinformation about allresources available, applicationof newtechnologies, different options of market outlets and sources of capital credit needed. He should be able to establish targets to be achieved. Obstacles or ‘stumbling blocks’ are always there which hinder progress towards goals. Therefore, these have tobe identified.He shouldbe abletocomparealternative optionsof realizing targets, consideringtheeach one in terms of income potential, thecapital needed, the labour required. Then choosing the best plan of action and put that option into operation. The manager should be able to assume responsibility for the consequences of actions taken. Later, he should evaluate and measure results. His accomplishments maybe assessed in the light of standards of performance. Notonlythat, but alsoto keep a vigil on production level, labour efficiency, cost, investments etc. He must keep the operating system flexible so that he may take advantage of new developments to be applicable in his plans.

Expectations from Veterinarian as Extension Officer to Promote Entrepreneurship

The veterinarian has to act as facilitators to exchange experiences, share knowledge and information and participate in joint problem-solving. This requires linking farmers with the right support institutions and individuals who have expertise to deal with their specific concerns. Therefore, extension workers need to understand the training needs of the farmers and to identify the best trainers or training institutions to meet those needs. Part of this involves creating awareness about the training programme and explaining the objectives and content to potential trainees.

Extension workers should also assess the impact of the training on the behaviour of the participants and on the farm business Impact assessment is essential because it is the true indicator of the relevance and effectiveness of the training programme.

Extension workers can also provide more general support in the form of study visits, study tours. Farmers observe ?good entrepreneurial practices?, and learn from the practices of others. Farmers are taken on a tour. See markets first-hand, visit input suppliers and buyers, and make contacts. Farmers also visit farmers in other areas to exchange experiences and see new techniques. Such visits can transform a farmer?s view on production and marketing. Visits should be followed up with periodic evaluations to assess the impact of the visit and the use of new practices and techniques. They can also arrange seminars with possible topics like entrepreneurship, farm business management, market possibilities, successful case studies, new technologies, price assessments and market-oriented production techniques. Extension workers can also facilitate farmers working with producer organizations. Producer organizations can make useful contributions to developing entrepreneurship among farmers.

Veterinary practice has gone through different phases with different components
• Phase I - Patient and Veterinarian: objective was only to treat illness of  the patient by veterinarian.
• Phase II – Patient - Veterinarian – Owner: Veterinarian was to take  recognition of owner and his/her needs.
• Phase III - Patient - Veterinarian – Owner – Law: Additional  responsibility on veterinarians to work as per the law (e.g. Registration  at VCI, Veterinary jurisprudence, Giving evidence at court of law, Health  certificates,    Death    certificate,    Cruelty    to    animals,    export   and    import    law,     euthanasia rules, etc.)
• Phase IV - Patient - Veterinarian – Owner – Law – Environment: Further  added responsibility to protect environment.  E.g. Biomedical waste  management. 

Feed additives

Feed additives may be defined as those substances that are added in livestock feeds to improve quality, digestibility and utilisation of feeds. It is also aimed at production improved quality of livestock produce, performance and health of the livestock and birds.

Classification of Additives

There are three types of systems for expressing the energy value of feeds and many examples have been depicted in each of these systems the world over but here, one example has been taken up in each of these categories.

Digestible Nutrient Type

For example, Total digestiblenutrients (TDN) system: Digestibility coefficients of various organic nutrients like carbohydrate, fat and protein are determined by digestibility trials, which can be utilized to be involved for total digestible nutrients as a measure of nutritive value of feeds. Here only faecal enegy loss has been considered barring losses from other channels. Hence roughages are overestimated bysuchcalculations.Otherwise, thismethodissimple, economical and has some basis for animals to be fed on such standard in India. The TDN value is expressed in percentage as following :

% TDN = % dig. C.P. + % dig. C.F. + % dig. N.F.E. + [% dig. E.E. X 2.25]

Crude protein of feedscontain true proteinandnon-proteinnitrogen. Trueprotein is madeupaminoacids andforthemaximumefficiency, feed musthave essential amino acids in correct proportion, correct balance as well as non essential amino acids should also be in sufficient amounts. About digestion in simple stomached animals, the true protein is degraded to oligo peptides (less than ten peptides) in the stomach, subsequently to mono peptide and amino acids in the small intestine. Thereafter amino acids are assimilated in the small intestine. But in ruminants, the situation is complex in the sense that feed proteins get digested in the rumen but even amino acids are also broken down by microbes and thereafter, amino and carboxylic groups are released. Secondly, synthesis of new amino acids or proteins takes place for the formation of their own microbial body coat. Because of these reasons, the approach for protein evaluationor expressionisdifferent inruminant andnon-ruminant animal.Further, non-protein nitrogen portion of feed can not be utilized effectively by non – ruminants like swine and poultry. These animals are usually fed with oil cakes, cereals and cereal by-products, which are poor in non-protein nitrogen compounds, however, young succulent fodders, clover etc. are rich in such compounds.

The basic aim of extension system is to bring about a change in the behaviour of the people with whom the work is done. Change in behaviour pertains to change in knowledge, skills, attitude, understanding, etc about a particular technology which we want to diffuse. For this purpose, the extension workers essentially function as teachers to bring about adoption of new technologies by making regular contact with livestock owners through various means. He visualizes the problems of rural community in proper perspective and organizes the meaningful learning situation for effective learning. It calls for appropriate use of different extension teaching techniques. The desirable changes in the behaviour of learners depend upon the skill of the extension worker as teacher in choosing the various extension teaching techniques which are found to be most effective in the relevant situations.

The main job of the extension worker is to bring about behavioural changes in the rural people. A number of extension methods are required to perform such behavioural changes among the rural people which form the tools of the extension workers. These tools are called extension teaching methods. Extension teaching methods may be defined as the devices used to create situations in which communication can take place between the extension worker and learner. The effectiveness of various teaching methods depends on the combination of the same. Similarly, the adoption of innovation is positively related to the combination of different extension teaching methods, at different stages of the learning process.

Ducks are prone to several external parasites and are also affected by external parasites found in other poultry birds. Birds are plagued by an remarkable range of ectoparasites, ranging from feather-feeding lice, to feather degrading bacteria and many of these ectoparasites have severe harmful effects on host health. External parasites can make ducks very uncomfortable, transmits several diseases and can be fatal in untreated cases. Among the ectoparasites lice is most commonly found in ducks. Ectoparasites infested birds become restless and the feeding and sleeping is disturbed resulting in decreased growth rate and egg production.

Common ectoparasites present on ducks-

This chapter introduces the major biological, nutritional, environmental and management factors that determine egg quality. It examines genetic and breed influences, hen age and stage of lay, nutrition and feed composition, housing systems, environmental conditions and heat stress. The effects of disease, medication, handling, on-farm management and storage are also discussed. The chapter emphasizes that egg quality results from interactions among multiple factors rather than from a single intervention. Induced moulting and nutritional management are considered as practical approaches to maintaining quality during the laying cycle.

Silage fermentation is a dynamic process involving interactions among the forage, microbial populations and the ensiling environment. A good fermentation process is not only dependent on the type and quality of the forage crop, but also on the harvesting and ensiling technique. There are various factors that influence the fermentation process and ultimately the nutrient composition and quality of ensiled feed. These are as follows:

1. Plant Factors

Forage characteristics at the time of ensiling are the predominant factor which determines the final quality of silage. Factors such as type of forage to be ensiled, maturity, DM content and WSC content of that forage, all influence the ease of ensiling and ultimately the quality of silage that is produced.

This chapter introduces the genetic, physiological, nutritional, environmental and management factors that determine wool quantity and quality. Breed establishes the genetic ceiling, while age, sex, pregnancy, lactation, nutrition, climate, stress, disease and parasites influence fibre growth. The chapter emphasizes the importance of steady nutrition, particularly sulphur-containing amino acids, for maintaining staple strength and fleece production. It also explains how breeding, husbandry, health management, shearing and preparation interact to determine the final commercial value of wool.

The goods and services with the help of which the process of production is carried out, are called factors of production. Economists talk about four main factors of production: land, labour, capital and entrepreneurship (or organization). They are also called as the inputs of production. On the other hand, the goods produced with the help of these inputs, are called as the output.
1. Land
Land refers to all natural resources such as forests, water, climate, and soil. It provides space for livestock farms and raw materials for the dairy and meat industries.
Features of Land
1. Gift of Nature – Land and climatic conditions are naturally available. For example, the fertile plains of Punjab and Haryana are naturally suited for growing fodder crops like berseem and maize, which are essential for dairy farming. Similarly, the lush green pastures of Uttarakhand, Jammu & Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh provide an ideal environment for rearing sheep and goats.
2. Limited in Supply – Land is fixed, and certain resources like water bodies and fodder resources may deplete over time. Water scarcity in regions like Maharashtra has forced farmers to shift from water-intensive crops to drought-resistant fodder crops.

Introduction
India possesses the largest livestock population globally. To sustain this extensive livestock sector, it is essential for the country to ensure a corresponding supply of feed and fodder that meets the growing demand. However, a significant barrier for enhancing livestock production in India is the inadequate availability of feeds and fodders, both in terms of quality and quantity. The limited land designated for cultivation approximately 3.3-4.4% of the total cultivable area coupled with the decline in pasture lands and a shift in cropping patterns from coarse cereals to commercial crops, poses substantial risks to fulfilling the nation’s feed and fodder requirements. A considerable portion of the coarse cereal byproducts is utilized as fodder. Projections indicate a shortfall of 28% to 35% in green fodder, 10% to 11% in dry fodder and 33% to 35% in concentrates (Niti Aayog, 2018). The current status of feed and fodder resources is insufficient to meet the rising demand. Proper feeding is vital for the improvement of livestock breeds, as inadequately fed improved breeds tend to deteriorate more quickly. Consequently, there is a persistent imbalance between the number of animals and the available feed resources.
Commonly used feeds and fodders for the feeding of livestock
Cereal Grains
i. Maize (Zea mays). By-products: ‘Maize gluten feed’, ‘Maize gluten meal’, Maize bran and maize germ meal
ii. Bajra (Pennisetum americanum)
iii. Barley (Hordeum sativum)
iv. Jowar (Sorghum bicolar L. moench)
v. Oats (Avena sativa)
vi. Ragi (Eleusine coracana)
vii. Rice (Oryzae sativa). By-products: ‘Rice bran’ and ‘Rice polish’
viii. Rye (Secale cereale)

Livestock feeds are generally classified according to the amount of a specific nutrient they furnish in the ration. They are divided into two general classes roughages and concentrates. Roughages are bulky feeds containing relatively large amount of less digestible material, i.e. crude fiber more than 18% and lower than 60% TDN on dry matter basis. Concentrates are feeds which contain relatively smaller amount (less than 18%) of fiber and have comparatively high digestibility and as a result higher nutritive value having more than 60% TDN.

A. Roughages

Roughages are subdivided into two major groups – succulent and dry, based upon the moisture content. Succulent feeds usually contain moisture content from 60 to 90%, whereas dry contains only 10 to 15% moisture. Succulent may again be divided into pasture, cultivated fodder crops, tree leaves, silage and root crops. Dry roughages may be further classified as hay and straw based on the nutritive value and methods of preservation.

Animal husbandry is an integral component of Indian agriculture supporting livelihood of more than two-third of the rural population. The livestock sector plays a significant role in supplementing family incomes and generating gainful employment in the rural sector, besides providing cheap nutritional food to millions of people. Livestock provides milk, egg, meat as nutritious food, draught power for agriculture, wool, fibre, manure and domestic fuel, hides & skin. In 2010-11, this sector contributed 121.84 million tonnes of milk, 63.02 billion eggs, 42.99 million kg wool, and 4.83 million tonnes of meat. Milk is the main output of livestock sector accounting around two third (67%) of the total output by livestock sector. Meat and egg share 17.5% and 3.6% of the value of livestock output. Livestock contributed 4% to the total GDP and 26% to the agricultural GDP in 2010-11. Livestock are the best insurance against the vagaries of nature like drought, famine and other natural calamities.

Farm machinery is a range of mechanical implements used in agriculture production from land preparation to harvesting and processing the produce. It includes various ploughs, tractors, broadcaster, harvester and post harvest processing machineries. The purpose of using machines in agriculture production is to handle the mass production, improve the efficiency and to save the labour costs. The types of implements used in fodder production are tillage, sowing, intercultural, plant protection and harvesting equipments.

Farming system is an integrated set of activities that farmers perform in their farms with available resources and circumstances to maximize the productivity and net farm income on a sustainable basis. The farming system conceptually is a set of elements or components, i.e., soil, water, crops, livestock, labour, capital, energy and other resources that are interrelated and interact among themselves. At the centre of the interaction lies the farmer exercising control and choice regarding the types of results of interaction. The income of cropping alone from small and marginal farm is insufficient now to sustain the farmers family. A judicious mix of any one or more of these enterprises should complement the farm income and help in recycling the farm residues / wastes. The selection of enterprises must be based on the cardinal principles of minimizing the competition and maximizing the complementary between the enterprises. Of late, the researchers on multidisciplinary approach greatly realized and started developing the various farming systems models in accordance with the agro-eco systems zones.

Farming System thus may be defined as a complex interrelated matrix of soil, plants, animals, implements, power, labour, capital and other inputs controlled in part by farming families and influenced to varying degrees by political, economic, institutional and social forces that operate at many levels. The farming system therefore, refers to the farm as an entity of inter-dependent farming enterprises carried out on the farm. The farm is viewed in a holistic manner and the farmers are subjected to many socio-economic, biophysical, institutional, administrative and technological constraints.

Maintenance

When an animal is being fed for growth, fattening, milk secretion or other productive function, a considerable part of its feed is utilized for supporting body processes which are vital, irrespective of new tissue or product is being formed. This demand for feed is referred to as the “Maintenance requirement”; because it includes the amount needed to keep intact the tissues of animal which is not growing, working or yielding any product. There would be tissue break down with the accompanying loss in weight, leading to undesirable consequences, provided such need for feed is not met.

The fasting catabolism

The fasting animal doing no external work and not producing in any way is still carrying on a variety of internal physiological processes, which are absolutely vital for life. Obviouslythe nutrients required to support theseinternal activities must come from the break down of body tissue itself. This destruction of body tissue is termed as the “Fasting catabolism” and this can be measured in terms of the waste products discarded through the various paths of excretion.

Energy catabolism of fasting

The energy expended in the fasting animal is converted into heat, which can be measured in direct or indirect calorimeter. For measuring fasting catabolism at its minimumvalue, it becomes imperative to eliminate all the influences leading to increase heat production above the minimum expenditure compatible with the maintenance of life in so far as possible. Such a minimum value is called “Basal-metabolism” or BMR.Theconditions essential fora true minimumvalue of fasting catabolism can most nearly be attained in human being are specified as following :

A. Answer the following questions

1.    What is omega carbon atom?

Ans: The methyl carbon atom at the distal end of the fatty acid chain is called omega carbon atom

2.    Why mammals can not synthesize essential fatty acid?

Ans: Because of their inability to introduce double bond between the 9th carbon atom and the terminal methyl group of the fatty acid chain.

3.    What is acid value?

Ans: It is defined as the number of milligram of KOH required to neutralize the free organic acids in 1 gm of fat.

4.    What is saponification number?

Ans: It is defined as the number of milligrams of KOH required to neutralize the free fatty acid and saponify the esterified fatty acids in 1 gm of fat.

5.    What is iodine number?

Assay of Carotene, Tocopherol and Plant Pigments (Method of Astrup et al., 1971). Agricultural University of NORWAY, ÅS-NLH, NORWAY

Introduction

A method which assays the carotene together with chlorophyll a and b and xanthophyll was given by worker (1957, 1958) and this was a successful approach towards a useful routine procedure. Worker’s way of extraction is based on the use of aqueous acetone a technique which was studied by Davidson (1954). The separation is accomplished on an alumina column. Worker (1958) has used a double successive chromatography, once on magnesia and again on alumina, to obtain its separation from the other lipid components. The method developed by Astrup et al. (1971) permits simultaneous assay of tocopherol, carotene and plant pigments using alumina column.