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Fatty liver, also known as hepatic lipidosis is a metabolic disorder commonly seen in various animal species. It occurs due to excessive accumulation of fat (lipids) in liver cells (hepatocytes), leading to impaired liver function. This condition is particularly prevalent in dairy cattle, poultry, cats, and occasionally in dogs and other species. Fatty liver can significantly impact health, productivity, and overall well-being. Nutritional management plays a crucial role in both preventing and treating this condition. Fatty liver occurs when the liver’s ability to metabolize and export fat is overwhelmed, leading to fat accumulation. This can happen due to various factors, including: Imbalance in energy metabolism Excess energy intake or inadequate utilization of energy during critical periods (e.g., early lactation in dairy cows) results in fat mobilization to the liver.
Obesity
Overweight animals are more prone to developing fatty liver due to an increased baseline fat deposit.
Nutritional deficiencies
Lack of essential nutrients like choline, methionine, and B vitamins can impair lipid metabolism. 

A. Answer the following?

1.    How antibiotic increases nutrient absorption from the gut?

Ans: In antibiotic fed animals, the intestine becomes thinner and healthier, thus they helps in more absorption of nutrient.

2.    What is probiotic?

Ans: Probioticcan be defined asthe live microbial food supplement that beneficially affects the host animal by improving the intestinalmicrobial balance.

3.    What is prebiotic?

Ans: These are the compound other than dietary nutrients that modifythe balance of microbial populationbypromoting the growth of beneficial bacteria and thereby maintain healthier intestinal environments.

4.    What is eubiotics?

Ans: Eubiotics are defined as non-antibiotic products maintaining the desiredbalance of good bacteriaand pathogens or eubiosis in the digestive tract. e.g. direct acting gut flora modulator (organic acid, essential oil), probiotics, prebiotics, immune modulator.

5.    What is supplement?

Feed processing includes all operations necessary to achieve the maximum potential of nutritional value of a feed stuff. The process involves changing ingredients in such a manner as to maximize their natural value and the net returns from their use. Feed processing may be accompanied by Physical, Chemical, Thermal, Bacterial or other changes of a feed ingredient before it is fed. The primary reasons for processing feeds are to make changes in the moisture content, density of feed, particle size, palatability; or to make more profit, to improve nutrient availability, keeping quality (shelf – life); or to reduce storage – transportation space, cost, moulds, Salmonella and other harmful substances. Feed mill equipment: The milling industry has been concerned with “Grinding” – a process of particle size reduction. During
earlier times, the same equipment was used Food for humans to produce Food for livestock because, the process was basically ‘grinding’ of whole grains. As milling developed into the “Modern Flour Industry”, the milling process was extended to include:

Current status of feed and fodder availability in India Globally India ranks 1st in terms of total livestock (535.78 million) and buffalo population in the world (109.85 million), 2nd in cattle (192.49 million), goat (148.88 million) and 3rd in sheep population. So, the availability of adequate quantity and quality feed and fodder resources for livestock is essential for improving livestock productivity. Grazing lands and fodder cultivation areas are gradually dwindling either due to degradation or restriction for livestock grazing. Total area under fodder cultivation is around 8.4 mha (5.23%) which is almost static for the past two decades. Even though feed and fodder availability has improved in the last decade still gap exists with demand and availability of fodder during lean periods and abnormal weather conditions like droughts/floods. At present, India faces a net deficit of 35.6% green fodder (GF), 10.95% dry crop residues and 44% concentrate feeds. In India, open forest cover is around 29 million hectares (mha), which can be further utilized for growing fodder trees without affecting standing trees, mostly as an under- storey on the partially shaded ground Area under fodder production Sorghum (2.6 M ha) and Egyptian clover (1.9 M ha) account for roughly 54% of the total cultivated fodder area in the kharif and

In natural farming-based aquaculture, feed management emphasizes sustainable practices that utilize naturally occurring food sources along with lowcost supplements. This method reduces dependency on commercial feeds and chemical inputs, aligning with eco-friendly farming principles and supporting aquatic biodiversity. Fish raised in natural farming systems primarily feed on natural organisms such as plankton, algae, and detritus. These develop in ponds fertilized with organic inputs like cow dung and compost, which help create a self-sustaining aquatic ecosystem. Fish thrive by feeding through the natural food chain, minimizing the need for external inputs.
Supplementary feeding includes locally sourced plant materials such as azolla, duckweed, water hyacinth, and aquatic weeds that are rich in nutrients. Farmers also use kitchen waste, crop residues, and agricultural byproducts like rice bran and wheat bran to enhance nutritional value.
Fermented feed mixtures—made using bran, cow urine, and microbial solutions—are applied to improve digestion and nutrient uptake. These probiotic feeds support fish health and improve immunity without resorting to synthetic additives. Regular pond maintenance, including partial water renewal and organic fertilization, supports the continuous generation of natural feed organisms. This ensures a balanced and productive environment for fish rearing.
Adopting such natural feed strategies leads to healthier fish, reduced environmental impact, and lower input costs. It also complements integrated farming systems, contributing to farm sustainability and diversified income opportunities.

Goats and sheep play a vital role in natural farming systems due to their adaptability, efficient utilization of feed, and importance in sustaining rural livelihoods. Proper feed management is key to ensuring their health, reproductive success, and overall productivity, all while reducing reliance on external inputs. In natural farming, the diet of goats and sheep mainly consists of locally available grasses, shrubs, tree foliage, crop residues, and forage legumes. Fodder trees such as subabul, moringa, ber, and neem serve as valuable sources of protein and micronutrients. To address seasonal shortages, farmers establish fodder reserves and adopt agroforestry systems that combine tree planting with crop cultivation.
Goats, being browsers, thrive on a wide variety of vegetation including tough shrubs and woody plants, many of which contain medicinal secondary compounds. Sheep, on the other hand, prefer grazing on grasses and herbs, making careful pasture management essential to prevent nutrient deficiencies.
Locally sourced feed supplements like oilseed cakes, pulses, and leftover kitchen food help improve protein and energy intake. Mineral blocks enriched with salt, calcium, phosphorus, and trace minerals aid in proper skeletal development and reproductive health.

In natural farming systems, maintaining high-quality livestock feed is essential for safeguarding animal health, sustaining productivity, and ensuring food safety. Since these systems prioritize the use of non-chemical, farm-sourced inputs, the responsibility for ensuring feed quality lies directly with the farmer rather than industrial monitoring systems. High-quality feed should be fresh, nutritionally adequate, contaminant-free, and palatable to animals. A visual inspection is typically the first method of assessment—looking for signs like mold, discoloration, unusual odors, or insect presence. Green fodder should retain its vibrant color and characteristic smell, while dry fodder and grains must be crisp,clean, and free from fungal growth. Poor-quality or improperly stored feed can compromise animal health, leading to digestive problems or weakened immunity.
In natural feed management, monitoring animal responses offers crucial insights into feed effectiveness. Changes in appetite, body weight, milk output, behavior, or stool consistency often reflect the nutritional adequacy of the feed. Healthy signs such as glossy coats, bright eyes, and alertness signal good nutrition, while reduced performance or dull appearance may suggest deficiencies. Simple on-farm tests—such as floating grains in water or checking silage by smell—can serve as practical, low-cost quality checks in the absence of lab facilities.

Introduction

The Indian poultry industry has emerged as the most dynamic and fastest expanding segment in animal husbandry sector with an annual growth rate of 23% in broiler chickens and 5% in egg production. The production performance of birds in terms of meat and egg has also improved significantly; however, the sector has crippled many times due to various reasons among which the important ones were rising feed cost, non-availability og feed ingredients, fluctuating market price of produce (eggs and broilers) and emergence of new or re-emerging of existing diseases. In future, poultry industry may face more such challenges.

When we talk about importance of feed technology in relation to animal productivity, feed represents the major cost in animal production as follows -
Feed processing includes all operations necessary to achieve the maximum potential of nutritional value of a feed stuff. The process involves changing ingredients in such a manner as to maximize their natural value and the net returns from their use. Feed processing may be accomplished by Physical, Chemical, Thermal, Bacterial or other changes of a feed ingredient before it is fed. The primary reasons for processing feeds are to make changes in the moisture content, density of feed, particle size, palatability; or to make more profit, to improve nutrient availability, keeping quality; or to reduce storage -transportation space, cost, moulds, salmonella and other harmful substances. Detoxification of undesirable components because some feeds may contain toxic substances, theexcess consumption of whichmaycausedecreased nutritive value of the feeds or may injure some vital organs or even cause death. Some natural inhibitors in feedstuffs are as following :

In the rabbit production industry, providing a healthy diet and adequate amount of food every day is crucial for success. Rabbits can only survive and thrive on a diet of forage, so it is important to carefully consider their nutritional needs when planning their feeding regimen.

Some rabbit producers choose to provide basic grains in addition to forages in order to increase the potential productivity of their herd. These grains can be sourced from one's own farm or purchased commercially as concentrated feeds. The type of feed given to rabbits will greatly impact the management of the herd, such as how frequently they need to be rebred.

A. Answer the following questions

1.    WhyvitaminAdeficiencyis far common in captive carnivores than free rangingwildlife?

Ans: Because they are fed exclusively on carcass meat without liver, cod liver oil or synthetic sources of vitamin A and moreover, thay can not convert ?-carotene to vitamin A.

2.    Why weekly off day feeding is practiced in tiger in all Indian zoos?

Ans: This ispracticed tostimulatetheintermittentfeedingbehavior of tiger in wild condition.

3.    Why metabolic bone diseases are very common in captive carnivores?

And: As the carcass meat provided in captivecondition is deficient in Ca and ratio of Ca: P (1:20) is very highly imbalanced.

4.    Write the extreme specializations in GItract seen in vampire bats?

Ans: Like blood sucking parasites, their GI tract is reduced to a tube since it feeds only on blood.

8.1. Introduction

Providing appropriate nutrition is an elementary step in dairy animal production. Improper nutrition prevents cattle to express full genetic potential for milk production and reproductive efficiency. Nutrition helps in maintaining good health condition of the animal.

Therefore, one should know the basic digestive physiology, various types of nutrients and their requirements in different categories of animals present in a dairy herd. As feed cost contributes principal expenditure of a dairy farm, balanced ration should be prepared in a cost effective manner. Proper understanding of feeds and rations also help to explore alternative feeds and supplements without hampering the health as well as productivity of the animals. Effective dairy farming requires converting feed into milk which worth more than the total cost of production (mostly contributed by feed cost).

A. Answer the following questions

1.    What is balanced ration?

Ans: According to Morrison (1956), a balanced ration is one that furnishes nutrients in such proportions and amounts that it will properlynourisha givenanimalfor 24hours.The required nutrients must be contained in the DM provided during the 24 hrs period otherwise the ration can not be considered as balanced.

2.    What is ration?

Ans: A ration is the feed allowed for a givenanimal duringthe day of 24 hours.

3.    What is effective rumen degradable protein? (ERDP)

Ans: It has been defined as a measure of the total nitrogen supply that is actually captured and utilized by the rumen microbes for growth and synthetic purpose.

4.    How heat treatment causes protein protection?

Ans Heating causes denaturation of protein and this may be beneficial because of reduced ruminal degradation partly by blocking reactive sites for ruminal proteolytic enzymes and partly byreducingprotein solubility.

In the cases of drought and flood when the feed resources made unavailable, creates the problem of animals feeding. In those cases unconventional methods and materials will have to be used to fulfil the hunger and nutrient requirements of animals to sustain them. 

Traditional methods of feeding
    1.    Use of by-products of commercial crops such as oil seed crops, grams etc. as well as drought resistant vegetation in combination with NPN source and molasses (as source of energy) for meeting the immediate nutritional requirements.

    2.     Certain varieties of tree leaves and extractions of inedible oil seeds can be used to meet the essential requirements of intact protein in ruminants. This proved to be successful during draught in many parts of India.
 
    3.    Large scale feeding of bagasse and molasses in combination with urea and mineral supplements may be adopted without any toxic effects. Some of the daily ration schedule that has been successfully tried is given below:

Digestive System and Digestion in Chicken

Studies on structure and functions of digestive system of chicken play important role for their nutrition and feeding. Functions of each part are given below (Fig 35):

Mouth: Birds feed through the beak. The horny upper and lower mandibles form the beak. Lips, teeth, cheek and soft palate are absent. The dagger-like tongue helps to force the feed into the esophagus. Chicken has 24 taste buds with high sense of taste. Absence of teeth makes the particle size of the feed important.

Esophagus (Gullet): It is made of loose fibrous tissue and serves as a tube to pass the food from mouth to crop. This is relatively long because of the long neck of the fowl.

Crop: (Ingluvius): It is a pouch like structure of esophagus to store, moisten and soften the food. It gives information about the feeding habits of the fowl.

Proventriculus (Glandular stomach or True stomach): It is an enlarged glandular ovoid structure of the esophagus connected to gizzard. It secretes pepsin and Hydrochloric acid.

Gizzard (Muscular stomach): Disc shaped muscular organ with two pairs of strong thick muscles and lined internally with a thick horny epithelial covering called the Koilin layer. Coarse materials are ground well by its powerful contractions with the support of the grit that birds consume.

India is one of the top ten countries most affected by disasters, as defined by the Disaster Management Act of 2005. Natural disasters, such as floods, droughts, and earthquakes, often lead to food and water shortages. Man-made disasters, like industrial accidents and pollution, can further worsen conditions for animals. Ensuring animal welfare during disasters is essential for family survival, as livestock provide food security. Developing a comprehensive animal care plan is vital to safeguard animals during and after natural disasters.
During natural disasters, the primary objective should be to prevent animals from starving by diverting feed from lactating animals whenever possible. Implementing restricted feeding is crucial, even if it results in weight loss and reduced milk yield in lactating animals. Utilizing various measures such as conserved fodders, cost-effective hydroponic systems, unconventional feed resources, and nutrient blocks can help prevent livestock mortality and morbidity during emergencies.
Natural calamities often lead to significant livestock losses, highlighting the importance of feed security for animals during and after disasters. Developing feeding strategies to sustain animals in the face of natural calamities is crucial.
Feeding strategies during feed shortages aim to maintain animals at a minimum body weight for survival, prioritize feeding productive stock, and understand critical weight losses for different species. Critical body weight varies by species, breed, and age, with cattle at risk if weight loss exceeds 20%. Understanding these factors is essential for effective feed resource allocation during emergencies.
Developing countries face feed shortages exacerbated by natural disasters, creating a gap between feed demand and supply. Hydro-meteorological disasters pose challenges in transporting feed, leading to increased costs. In such situations, ensuring animal survival through rationed feeding is crucial. Booster feed can aid in their recovery once conditions improve

A. Write True or False of the following statements

1.    Goats have higher threshold level for bitter taste than other ruminants.

2.    Cattle is acknowledged as mobile pruning machine.

3.    Creep feed should have at least 10% DCP and 58% TDN. 4. Goat under brows condition performs better.

5.    Colostrumshould be fed to the kids @ 10ml/kgbodyweight.

6.    Creepfeed maybe introduced to kidsfrom101 days onwards.

7.    Due to difference in MBS, DMI is higher in larger breeds than smaller breeds.

8.    30-40% of feed intake by goat consists of leaves of shrubs and bushes.

Feed is a significant expense in raising small ruminants, accounting for 60% or more of total production costs. Nutrition is crucial for flock reproduction, milk production, and lamb and kid growth. Late gestation and lactation are critical periods for ewe and doe nutrition, with lactation having the highest nutritional demands. Nutrition levels determine the growth rate of lambs and kids, particularly protein requirements. Animals on inadequate diets are more prone to diseases and fail to reach their full genetic potential.
Small ruminants require energy, protein, vitamins, minerals, fiber, and water for optimal health. Energy is often the most limiting nutrient, while protein is the most costly. Imbalances in vitamins and minerals can affect animal performance and health. Fiber is essential for a healthy rumen environment and digestion. Water, though inexpensive, is often overlooked.
Feed intake percentage varies based on the animal’s size, with smaller animals needing a higher intake proportionally. Maintenance requirements increase with activity levels, environmental conditions, and life stages such as pregnancy, lactation, and growth. Sheep and goats can meet their nutritional needs with various feed sources as long as requirements are met. Feeding programs should consider animal needs, feed availability, and nutrient costs.
Comparative Feeding Behaviour and Digestive Physiology in Goats and Sheep
1. Goats excel in utilizing cell wall-rich and nitrogen-poor forages compared to sheep and cattle.
2. Goats have a longer retention time of feed in the digestive tract, higher cellulolytic bacteria concentration in the rumen, and efficient blood urea recycling.
3. In harsh conditions, goats consume less water and more dry matter than sheep.

Feeding silage is also an important part of the process. Silage can be fed to all kinds of animals. Silage is suitable for feeding 6-7 weeks after ensiling. Purposes of silage feeding are drought feeding, production increases, an aid to pasture or crop management, utilization of excess growth, balancing nutrients in the diet, and the storage of wet feed products. Silage is most likely to be profitable when used to increase productivity or balance nutrient content of the diet.
 
Feeding value of silage is defined as the product of the nutritive value and potential voluntary intake of the forage (Wheeler and Corbett, 1989).

Declaration of facts about the amounts of nutrients required by the various classes of livestockfor differentphysiologicalfunctions like maintenance, growth, lactation, eggproduction, wool productionetc. are in generaltermed as “Feeding standards”. Nutrient requirement is the statement of what animals on an average require for a particular function.Allowanceis greater than the required amount by a ‘safety margin’ which is allowed for variations in requirement between individual animals. Such standards may be expressed in quantities or in dietary proportions, for example gram per day, this method of expression is used mainly for animals given exact quantities of feeds; or gram per kilogram of the diet, this method is used for animals fed to appetite.

Various units are used for feeding standards – for ruminants, the energy requirements may be stated in terms of net energy, metabolizable energy or feed units and protein requirements in terms of crude protein, digestible crude protein or metabolizable protein. It is obviously desirable that the units used in the standards should be the same as those used in the evaluation of feeds. For dairy cows, the requirements are given separately for maintenance and for milk production. But for growing chickens, they are given for maintenance and growth combined. In some instances, the requirements for single functions are not known, for example, vitamins and trace elements. As mentioned above, in feeding practice, the requirement amount is accompanied by the addition of a ‘safety factor’.