eChapters

Tissue Doppler Imaging

Doppler echocardiography relies on detection of the shift in frequency of ultrasound signals reflected from moving objects. With this principle, conventional Doppler techniques assess the velocity of blood flow by measuring high-frequency, low amplitude signals from small, fast-moving blood cells. In TDI, the same Doppler principles are used to quantify the higher-amplitude, lower-velocity signals of myocardial tissue motion.

There are important limitations to TD interrogation. As with all Doppler techniques, TDI measures only the vector of motion that is parallel to the direction of the ultrasound beam. In addition, TDI measures absolute tissue velocity and is unable to discriminate passive motion (related to translation or tethering) from active motion (fiber shortening or lengthening). The emerging technology of Doppler strain imaging provides a means to differentiate true contractility from passive myocardial motion by looking at relative changes in tissue velocity.

Definitions

Pen Enclosure for housing rabbits that allows for freedom of movement by rabbits and allows for the provision of a variety of environmental enrichment strategies. Cage Fully enclosed container for housing rabbits which, because of its size, restricts freedom of movement by rabbits and limits the provision of environmental enrichment strategies. Cages are usually constructed from metal or plastic, with solid or mesh sides.

Introduction

Aflatoxins are a group of highly subsituted coumarine, of which aflatoxin B1 and G1 are  most  highly hepatotoxic (toxic to liver) to animals. The toxins are produced by some strains of Aspergillus flavus and other species of Aspergillus which develop in many food stuffs, particularly groundnuts. cottonseed, and their cake and flour. Protein concentrates meant for babies as well as adult are now a day  made from groundnut flour and the cakes are used as feed for poultry and livestock. It has been found that even fodgrains such as maize, rice and wheat are attacked by the fungus producing the toxins.

Introduction

The term ‘mycotoxin’ coined in 1962 in the aftermath of death of about 1,00,000 turkey poults in London, due to “Turkey X disease” in 1960, linked to a peanut meal contaminated with aflatoxins. Now, about 300 to 400 toxic fungal metabolites have been identified as mycotoxins, of which some are capable of inflicting deleterious effects to animal and avian health. The most commonly affected feedstuffs are cereals (maize, sorghum, barley, wheat, and rice meal), oilseeds (groundnuts) and oilseed meals (cottonseed meal). There are three major genera of fungi that produce mycotoxins: Aspergilius, Fusarium and Penicillium (Bennett and Klich, 2003). Among these, the Aspergillus species are of much concern as they are responsible for the production of aflatoxins, the most potent fungal toxin causing aflatoxicoses that have detrimental effects on living beings (Barret, 2000).

Meteorology is a branch of physical sciences, which studies the physical properties of earth's atmosphere, and it is a combination of physical and geographical sciences. It is an applied science using the principles of physics to understand the physical state and behaviour of atmosphere.

In meteorology, weather describes the physical state of atmosphere of a particular place in a given point of time, usually for a shorter duration. On the other hand, climate describes the state and dynamics of the same set of weather variables of a particular place for a longer period.

As per Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), agro forestry represents land-use systems and technologies where trees, shrubs, palms, bamboos, etc. are deliberately used on the same land-management units as agricultural crops and or animals, in some form effective utilization of land and to increase the returns per unit of land. The three main components of agro forestry are land, crops & trees and animals and that can be combined in numerous spatial and temporal function thus creating different kinds of production function.

Introduction

Though, India is bestowed with large livestock population (512.05 million) to which cattle buffaloes, goats and sheep contribute 190.90, 108.70, 135.2 and 65.07 numbers in millions, respectively (DADF, 2018), but at the same time, facing with a great shortage of crop residues, greens and concentrates for animal sustainability (NIANP, 2013). The shortage of these conventional feeds and fodders tropical and sub-tropical regions has already been documented and well recognized (Maneerat et al., 2015). The feed and fodder resources are gradually decreasing throughout India owing to many factors like shrinkage of common property resources and shift towards the cultivation of commercial crops etc. (Biradar and Kumar, 2013). Based on feed production and feed requirement calculated as above, India falls short by 219.2 Mt of green fodder and 226.73 MT of dry fodder (Earagariyanna et al., 2017). India faces a green fodder shortage of 63.5 percent and a dry fodder shortage of 23.5 percent and if the current situation continues then India's green fodder shortage will reach 66 percent and dry fodder will reach 25 percent by 2030 (Jitendra, 2017). This scenario demands the utilization of alternate non-conventional feed resources to sustain and economize livestock farming. The issues can be addressed by those unconventional resources like agricultural wastes which are widely available at low or zero cost and too with minimal treatment may serve as potential nutritional feeding material for animals.

Feed Additives
Feed additives are administered to animal to enhance the effectiveness of nutrients and exert their effects in the gut or on the gut walls. Some of the common feed additives are: Antibiotics, Probiotics, Prebiotics, Arsenicals, Buffering compounds, Anti – oxidants, Enzymes, Hormones, Adsorbents, Organic acids, Flavouring agent, Pigments.
(a) Antibiotics: Chemical compounds produced by other microbes (for example, fungi, and are also synthesized in the laboratory) that, when given in small amounts, halt the growth of bacteria. They are used at therapeutic levels to treat diseases caused by bacteria. In sub – therapeutic levels added to the feed or food to enhance the rate of growth. Modes of action: They halt the growth of bacteria by interfering with their cellular metabolism by (i) Interfere with the synthesis of bacterial cell wall and cause the cell to burst, (ii) Inhibitors of protein synthesis, (iii) Inhibitors of bacterial DNA synthesis, (iv) Ionophore antibiotics – interfere with Na – K electrolyte balance, for example: Monensin sodium.
(b) Probiotics: It’s a live microbial food supplement that beneficially affects the host animal by improving the intestinal microbial balance. Beneficial microbes produce enzymes that complement the digestive ability of the host and their presence provides a barrier against invading pathogens [Figure 2].

Artificial intelligence can detect subtle changes in animal health before they become apparent through conventional observation. This chapter examines machine learning, deep learning and predictive analytics for livestock disease prediction and diagnosis. Models use physiological signals, diagnostic images, behaviour patterns, environmental conditions and historical records to recognize abnormalities and estimate disease risk. Wearable sensors and IoT devices enable continuous monitoring and early-warning systems, supporting preventive veterinary care and outbreak management. AI-based detection can reduce mortality, treatment costs and production losses while improving decision-making. The chapter also evaluates challenges involving inconsistent data, model interpretability, rural infrastructure, technical accessibility and the practical implementation of diagnostic systems.

This chapter introduces artificial intelligence, machine learning, computer vision and spectroscopy for rapid, automated and non-destructive egg-quality assessment. It covers machine-vision fundamentals, image acquisition and preprocessing, feature extraction, machine-learning models, deep learning, convolutional neural networks, hyperspectral methods and defect detection. Applications include crack detection, freshness prediction and internal-quality assessment. The chapter also examines model validation, transfer learning, sensor integration, commercial grading-line requirements and the practical limitations of deploying AI systems at industrial scale.

Chemistry of Alkanes

In living plants, hydrocarbons are universally distributed in the waxy coatings on leaves and other plant organs. Alkane fraction is commonly a mixture of hydrocarbons of similar properties. The qualitative pattern is relatively similar from plant to plant, but there are considerable quantitative variation. Alkanes are saturated long chain hydrocarbons. They are usually present in the range of C to C carbon atoms. Examples are n-nonacosane, C H and n-hentriacontane, C C . In general, odd-numbered carbon chains occur predominantly in the cuticular wax of plants and are substantially indigestible.

How alkanes are “user friendly” !

Following are some points to ponder :

• Alkanes are long carbon chains found naturally in plants and each plant species has its unique compliment of these different alkanes which act like “fingerprints”. Forage intake can be estimated from ‘faecal grab samples’, if the ratio between these endogenous plant alkanes and exogenous alkanes delivered from “a rumen slow - release gelatin capsule” is calculated.

• Alkanes can also be used for determiningdigestibility and characterizing thespecies compositionof thediet, makingalkanes an extremelypowerful tool for dairy research.

• Anenexpensive, reliable and simpletechnique offers tremendous potential for research in the area of low cost dairy production from forages. Such data may be used by “slow–release marker” to estimate intake and digestibility.

• Alkanes offer a potentially simple technique for the animal scientist and it is feasible to estimate alkane concentrations using Near Infra-Red scanning [N.I.R.]. It is a rapid analytical method, thus making alkane technology an extremely ‘user friendly’ tool to be widely adopted on behalf of the dairy industry.

Green peach aphid/leaf curl aphid : Brachycaudus helichrysi : Aphididae

These are green aphids that suck the sap from growing buds. Leaf buds become weak and result in poor setting and premature fruit fall.

The pest has a worldwide distribution. In India it is seen in the hills of North India and in nilgiris.

It is a serious pest of peaches, plum, apricot, and almond. The aphids attack the tender portions like new buds, blossoms, petioles, tender fruits and leaves. When the new flushes are attacked, the leaves get curled and crinkled and fruit set is either reduced or  fruits fall off . The infestation starts with the commencement of bud swelling and continues until after flowering. The leaf curl may be confused with that due to the fungal leaf curl by Taphrina deformans.

Imbalance between feed availability, feed ingredient prices, and livestock product prices, such as milk, meat, and eggs, leads to poor animal performance, low growth rates, reduced reproductive efficiency, and high morbidity and mortality rates. This issue is particularly severe in South Asian countries like Pakistan, Nepal, India, and Bangladesh, where there is a widespread lack of sufficient high-quality feed. To address this challenge, it is essential to develop technologies for utilizing non-conventional feeds and fibrous agricultural residues more effectively.
The large number of livestock in these countries is both an asset and a liability. Many of the less productive animals are owned by impoverished individuals who have no alternative livelihood options and cannot reduce their livestock numbers. Therefore, efforts must be made to enhance production by optimizing the use of available feed resources, minimizing losses from diseases and parasites, implementing better management practices, and focusing on genetic improvement. The primary feed resources in these regions are crop residues, such as rice and wheat straws, sorghum and maize stovers, and sugar cane bagasse. These materials are typically low in protein and high in fiber, with energy content in a lignified form.
India, with 17.5% of the global population and 20% of the world’s cattle population, faces challenges due to limited land availability for agriculture. The country’s animal population grows at a rate of 0.66% annually, while the human population increases rapidly at 1.6%. With only 4% of cultivable land allocated to farm feed production, there is intense competition between human and animal populations for food and fodder resources. India currently experiences a deficit of 44% in concentrate feed ingredients, 10.5% in dry crop residues, and 35.6% in green fodder, exacerbating the shrinking farmland due to urbanization.
Traditional feed in India consists of crop residues or straw from grains like jowar, bajra, ragi, wheat, and barley, either whole or ground. These materials can be fed alone or in combination with fresh fodder. The limited availability of land for fodder crops necessitates the exploration of non-traditional or

Introduction

Limited feed supply and poor quality of the available feeds are the major constraints for optimal livestock and poultry productivity in all developing nations like India. Most of the regions in India are characterized by irregular rainfall and thus livestock have to survive on persistent shortage of feed resources of low nutritive value for most part of the year. The poultry industry is an important livestock sub-sector in India with a potential to solve the problem of malnutrition, unemployment and augmenting rural economy. However, high feed cost decreases animal production which contributes to lower animal protein availability for human consumption. This vicious cycle of low productivity and intake of animal protein has been maintained and sustained by the scarcity of feedstuff.

Use of animals in teaching is an inevitable process of learning in Veterinary and Animal Science colleges. Consequently, animals have to be handled for anatomical demonstration, surgical practice and used as experimental animals in various investigatory researches. The apprehensions and pain the animals have to suffer from these handlings (mishandlings) have brought the need to look for alternative ways to deal with animals and yet the purpose of learning about them does not diminish. Now-a-days, a growing emphasis is placed on minimizing the overall use of animals alongside advancements in science.

Amaranthus stem weevil: Hypolixus truncatulus :Curculionidae
 
It is an important pest of amaranthus and is widely distributed in India. It attacks both wild and cultivated amaranthus, especially the leafy varieties with large leaves. Hence, management involves destruction of unwanted, weedy wild amaranthus plants, to reduce the breeding place for the weevil. Adults are ash-grey in colour, with elbowed antennae and brown elytra. Females lay eggs singly in holes made on the stem, branches, petioles or midribs. Eggs are smooth, oval and pale yellow in colour. Incubation period is 3 to 8 days.

Spotted boll  worms/ Shoot and fruit borer: Earias vitella (=E.fabia), E. insulana: Noctuidae

This is a pest on cotton, bhendi, hibiscus, holly hock and other malvaceous vegetables. Moths lay eggs singly in leaf axils, bracts and leaf veins and on under surface. Larvae bore into tender shoots, buds, flowers and fruits and feed on internal contents.  Damage results in drooping of shoots and shedding of buds and flowers. The infested fruits have bore holes, are deformed and become unfit for consumption.  Bore holes are plugged with excreta.

Taxonomic Classification of Common Livestock Species

A series of terms (kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus, species etc) is used to denote the member of a kingdom and each division of the hierarchy contains one or more groups from the next lower division like subphyla, subclasses, suborders, subfamilies, or subgenera etc if required. Further, species may be subdivided into varieties, breeds, or strains. Domestic farm animals belong to either class Mammalia or Aves. The scientific name of an animal comprise of its genus and species names. The first letter of genus name is written in capital letter but not the species name. While writing the scientific name of an animal the genus and species names are underlined when handwritten and always italicized when printed. General characteristics and taxonomic arrangements of common domestic animals have been given below.

Kingdom : Animalia

Members of kingdom Animalia are multicellular, eukaryotic heterotrophs. Adult animals develop from embryos. Most animals ingest and digest their food in some kind of internal cavity.

Introduction

Modern intensive livestock and poultry production has achieved phenomenal gains in the efficient and economical production of high quality and safe animal products and by-products. Furthermore, the overall performance of livestock can be increased by improving nutrients utilization, health status, fertility and efficiency of production. The use of feed additives has been an important part of achieving efficient livestock production. Feed additives are non-nutritive substances, preparations and micro-organisms that are added to animal feed to improve productive, reproductive and health performances. Any substance is considered as a feed additive when, not having a direct utilization as nutrient, is included at an optimum concentration in diet to exert a positive action over the animal health status or the dietary nutrient utilization. Hutjens (1991) defined feed additives as a group of substances that can cause a desired animal response in a non-nutrient role, such as pH shift, growth, or metabolic modifier. Feed additives are added deliberately to animal feed which may favourably influences characteristics of the animal feed, feed intake, gastro-intestinal flora, digestibility of the animal feeds, animal production, health, fertility and characteristics of animal products. Because of their chemical nature as active principles, additives are generally included in very small proportions in diet.